Alexander Gode and Hugh E. Blair Interlingua: a grammar of the international language New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1955 (2nd edition) ISBN 0-8044-0186-1 (summarized extracts) =============================================================== CALENDAR Sunday dominica January januario Monday lunedi February februario Tuesday martedi March martio Wednesday mercuridi April april Thursday jovedi May maio Friday venerdi June junio Saturday sabbato July julio August augusto September septembre October octobre November novembre December decembre =============================================================== GRAMMATICAL WORDS, section 134, pages 51-55: a: to; at ab: (prep) since, from alias: otherwise, in another manner; alias; at another time alibi: elsewhere ali(c)-: any-, some- alicubi: somewhere; anywhere alicun: some, any; a few; alicun cosa: something, anything alicuno: someone, somebody; anyone, anybody aliquando: sometime; at any time aliquanto: somewhat, to some degree alique: (pron) something, anything; (adv) somewhat alora: then; in that case, consequently alto: top; in alto: up; upwards; upstairs; on top ambe: (adj) both; ambes: (pron) both an: (inter part) --; an il habe le libro?: has he the book?; (conj) whether ancora: (adv) still, yet; (interj) encore anque: also, too; anque io: me too; non solo ... ma anque: not only ... but also ante: (prep) before, in front of; earlier than; above; (adv) before, ahead; earlier; forward; ante que: before ante-heri: day before yesterday a pena: hardly, scarcely apud: near, with, at, by assatis: (adv) enough; rather, fairly, quite assi: thus, so; assi ... como: as ... as avante: before, in front, ahead; forward basso: bottom; a basso: down, downward; in basso: down, below, downward; downstairs bastante: (adj) enough, sufficient; (adv) enough, sufficiently ben que: although bis: twice; encore cata: (adj) each; cata uno: each (one) causa: cause; a causa de: because of certo: certainly circa: around, about; approximately como: how; as, like; como si: as though, as if comocunque: however, in whatever way con: with, together with; by means of concernante: concerning contra: (prep) opposite, facing; against; (adv) opposite, facing; on the contrary cuje: whose -cunque: -ever de: from, since; of, belonging to; made of; with, by means of; de (+inf): to deman: tomorrow; deman matino: tomorrow morning; deman vespere: tomorrow night depost: (adv) afterwards, later; (prep) after, since; depost que: since, from the time that desde: (prep) since, from dum: while, as long as; until; provided that, if only dunque: therefore durante: during; durante que: while, whilst e: and; e ... e: both ... and ecce: lo!, see!, behold!; here is, here are ergo: therefore, accordingly, consequently, then, ergo esque: (inter part) esque ille ha le libro?: has he the book? et cetera, etc.: and so forth, and so on, et cetera, etc. etiam: also, likewise, too; even, even yet, yet; non solmente ... sed etiam: not only ... but also ex: out of, from excepte: except, excepting extra: (adv) without, on the outside; besides, in addition, extra; (prep) outside of, without, beyond; except, excepting; besides, in addition to foras: (adv) out of doors, outside, out; from without; (prep) beyond, except; foras de: outside of, without; foras de se: beside oneself forsan: perhaps, maybe gratis: gratis, free of charge haber: to have; il ha: there is, there are heri: yesterday hic: here; de hic a (un hora): (an hour) from now; usque (a) hic: up to here, thus far; up to now, hitherto; hic juncte: herewith hodie: today ibi: there ibidem: in the same place; ibidem; ibid.; ib. idem: the same (thing); idem; id. igitur: (adv/conj) then, therefore, thereupon il: (impers pron) it illa: she, her illac: there ille: he, it; him; that, the former illes: they; them illo: it in: in, into infra: (adv) below, underneath, beneath; (prep) below, under, beneath insimul: together inter: between, among interim: meanwhile, in the meantime intertanto: meanwhile, in the meantime intra: (adv/prep) within intro: inwardly, internally, on the inside, in io: I ipse: myself, yourself, himself, etc.; hodie ipse: this very day iste: this, the latter ita: thus, so; just so, yes; and so, consequently; accordingly jam: already, at once, right away; just now, a moment ago; indeed, surely; non ... jam: no longer jammais: ever, at any time; non ... jammais: never; jammais!: never! justo: just, exactly; justo nunc, justo ora: just now, right now juxta: (adv) near, near by; (prep) near, near to, next to la: her le: (art) the le: (pron) him les: them lo: it; lo que: that which, what loco: place; in loco de: instead of; in su loco: instead longe: far; away, far away; de longe: from afar, from a distance lontan: distant, far-off lor: their lore: their ma: but; no solo ... ma anque: not only ... but also malgrado: in spite of maniera: manner, way; de maniera que: so that me: me melio: (adv) better; tanto melio: so much the better melior: (adj) better; le melior: the best mesme: same; myself, yourself, himself, etc. (as in "the king himself") mesmo: likewise; even; hodie memso: this very day; ora mesmo: right now mi: my mie: mine minus: less; minus; a minus que: unless; al minus: at least; totos minus ille: all but him; le minus: the least multo: very; much nam: for nemo: no one, nobody ni: neither, no, also not nihil, nil: nothing nimie: (adj) too much, too many nimis: (adv) too, too much no: (adv) no non: not; no; si non: if not; except; unless it be nondum: not yet nonne: (inter part) is it not?; il es ver, nonne?: it is true, isn't it? nonobstante: (prep) despite, in spite of; (adv) nevertheless nos: us, we nostre: our, ours nulle: (adj) not any, no; null, worthless, without legal force nullemente: in no way, not at all nunc: now nunquam: never nusquam: nowhere o: or; o ... o: either ... or olim: once, formerly; at a future time, sometime (in the future) omne: (adj) all; each, every; de omne mano: from every hand; de omne latere: from every side; in omne caso: in any case; omne cosa: everything; omnes: (pron) all on: one ora: now parte: part; a parte: apart, aside; in parte: in part; del parte de: on the part of; de parte a parte: through and through; in nulle parte: nowhere passato: ago pauc: (adj) little, not much; few; un pauc (de): a little; pauc a pauc: little by little; in pauc: shortly, before long pauco: (adv) little per: through; during, throughout; by, through, by means of; per perque: (adv/conj) why; because plus: more; plus; le plus: the most; de plus: furthermore, besides; de plus in plus: more and more; in plus: furthermore, in addition, also; al plus: at best; plus o minus: more or less; non ... plus: no more; no longer pois: (adv) afterwards, thereafter; (conj) for; pois que: since, as, because post: (adv) behind, back, backwards; afterwards, after; (prep) behind; after; post que: since, because postea: afterwards, thereafter postquam: (conj) after; as soon as potius: rather, sooner presso: (adv/prep) near, close; a presso de: at the home of; in care of; with, among presto: presto, quickly, quick as a wink preter: (adv) past, beyond; (prep) past, along, alongside of; beyond; except, excepting; in addition to pridem: long ago pro: for, in favor of; in exchange for, in place of; pro (+inf): (in order) to proque: (adv/conj) why; because qual: which; what; le qual: which; that; who qualcunque: any, whatever quando: (adv/conj) when quandocunque: whenever quante: (and) how much, how many quanto: (adv) as much as; as far as; quanto ... tanto: the ... the; quanto a: as for quare: wherefore, why quasi: almost, nearly; in a certain sense, in a way; quasi que: as if que: (interr pron) what; (rel pron) who, whom, which, that qui: who, whom; de qui: whose quia: because, for quicunque: whoever, whomever, whosoever quo: (adv) whither, where; wherefore; (conj) so that, in order that re: about, concerning retro: back, backwards; ago; a retro: backwards salvo: save, but, but for; salvo que: save that, but that satis: enough; rather, somewhat; esser satis: to be enough; haber satis: to have enough; satis de (tempore, etc.): enough (time, etc.) se: (refl pron) himself; herself; itself; themselves secundo: (prep) (following) after; along, by; according to; secundo que: according as sed: but semper: always si: (adv) thus, so; yes; si ... como: as ... as si: (conj) if; whether; si non: if not; except, unless it be sia: be, may be, let there be; sia ... sia: be (it) ... or be (it); whether ... or; qual que sia: whatever, whatsoever sin: (prep) without sol: (adj) sole, alone, only; viver sol: to live alone; sentir se sol: to feel lonesome, lonely solo: (adv) only, merely; non solo ... ma anque: not only ... but also su: his, her, its sub: (prep) under, below, beneath subinde: immediately after, just after, forthwith; repeatedly, frequently, often, from time to time subito: suddenly, unexpectedly subtus: (adv) below, beneath, underneath sue: his, hers, its super: (prep) on, upon; on top of; over, above; about, concerning, on; (adv) above, on top; super toto: above all supra: (prep) above, over; (adv) on the top, above sur: on, upon; on top of tal: such, such a; tal e tal: such and such talmente: (adv) so; un libro talmente belle: so beautiful a book, such a beautiful book tamen: yet, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding tante: (adj) so much, so many; tante per cento: so much per hundred, percentage; tante ... como: as much, as many ... as tanto: (adv) so, so much; tanto ... como: as much ... as; in tanto que: inasmuch as; tanto plus ... que: all the more ... that; quanto ... tanto: the ... the tarde: (adv) late; plus tarde: later; later on; al plus tarde: at the latest te: you, thee; yourself, thyself tosto: presently, soon, promptly; plus tosto: rather, sooner; si tosto que: as soon as tote: (adj) all; every, each; tote le (homines): all (men); totos: all, everyone; de tote (le) corde: wholeheartedly; tote (le) duo: both totevia: yet, still, nevertheless toto: (n) all, everything; le toto: the whole; super toto: above all; ante toto: before all; post toto: after all; del toto: at all; in toto: entirely, wholely, in toto toto: (adv) all, quite, wholely trans: across, over, beyond, on the farther side of troppo: too, too much; troppo (de) (libros, etc.): too many (books, etc.); troppo (de) (aqua, etc.): too much (water, etc.); de troppo: superfluous, in the way, de trop tu: your, thy tue: yours, thine tunc: then ubi: (adv) where; (conj) where; when; as soon as; wherewith; in which; a ubi: where, whither; de ubi: from where, whence ubicunque: wherever ubique: everywhere; anywhere, wheresoever, wherever ultra: (adv) on the other side, beyond, farther; (prep) on the farther side of; beyond, past; besides; ultra illo: besides, moreover; ultra que: aside from the fact that un: a, an; le un le altere: on another, each other; le unes les alteres: one another, each other uno: (indef pron) one unquam: ever, at any time usquam: somewhere usque: (prep) (all the way up) to, up to; till, until; usque nunc: up to now verso: towards, to via: (adv) away; off; via!: go away!, begone!; (prep) by way of, via vice: (n) turn, stead; time (as in "three times"); alicun vices: sometimes; un vice: once; on one occasion; formerly; un vice que: once, once that; in vice de: instead of; a vices: at times; altere vice: a second time; plure vices: several times, repeatedly viste: considering; viste que: considering that vix: 1. with difficulty; 2. hardly, scarcely, barely voluntarie: willingly, readily, gladly, with pleasure vos: you; yourself, yourselves vostre: your, yours ya: (adv) indeed, certainly, of course; ya (io lo crede): (I) do (believe it) ================================================ PERSONAL PRONOUNS, section 54, page 21: OBJ POSS POSS SUBJ PREP OBJ REFL ADJ PRON 1p sg io ......me...... mi mie 2p sg tu ......te...... tu tue 3p sg m ille......... le se su sue 3p sg f illa......... la se su sue 3p sg n illo, il..... lo se su sue 1p pl nos..................... nostre..... 2p pl vos..................... vostre..... 2p pl m illes........ les se lor lore 2p pl f illas........ las se lor lore 2p pl n illos........ los se lor lore on uno.......................... cuje : "whose" qui : "who, whom" only for persons and only as a subject or after prepositions "Reflexive constructions are primarily of the type in which the object of the verb happens to be logically identical with the subject." "Reflexive constructions are also used to express passive ideas when there is no agent involved." "Second-case personal and reflexive pronouns (except in prepositional constructions) precede the simple tense forms of the verb but follow the participles, imperative forms, and the infinitive." "In a combination of two pronouns, one personal and the other reflexive, the latter precedes." =============================================== ALTERNATIVE COMPARISONS, section 37, pages 14f: parve : plus parve : le plus parve minor : le minor minime small : smaller/least : smallest/least magne : plus magne : le plus magne major : le major maxime great : greater : greatest bon : plus bon : le plus bon melior : le melior optime good : better : best mal : plus mal : le plus mal pejor : le pejor pessime bad : worse : worst ==================================== VERBS, sections 80ff, pages 29ff: model: | -ar -er -ir --------------------+------------------------------------------------- INFINITIVE | crear vider audir PRESENT PARTICIPLE | creante vidente audiente PAST PARTICIPLE | create vidite audite IMPERATIVE | crea! vide! audi! PRESENT | crea vide audi PAST | creava videva audiva PRESENT PERFECT | ha create ha vidite ha audite PAST PERFECT | habeva create habeva vidite habeva audite FUTURE | creara videra audira FUTURE PERFECT | habera create habera vidite habera audite CONDITIONAL | crearea viderea audirea CONDITIONAL PERFECT | haberea create haberea vidite haberea audite Passives are formed from the corresponding tenses of ESSER plus past participle. The following alternative forms are available: es = esse (singular/plural) son = esse (plural) era = esseva sia = esse (optional irregular subjunctive) ha = habe va = vade Inf. serves in place of English gerund. Inf. + a : Inf. seems to represent a goal either after an adjective or verbal construction; Inf. modifies noun instead of present participle; easy or difficult to do (adjectival construction); what the subject can do with something; not the direct object of preceding verb. Inf. + pro : in order (to). Inf. + : when Inf. serves as a noun. Inf. + de : neutral preposition; what the subject can do itself (adjectival construction); not as direct ofject of verb. Subj. (accus.) + Inf. : . 'of ...ing' : de + Inf. ================================================ NUMERALS, sections 118ff, pages 42ff: 0 zero 1 un 10 dece 1me prime = + -esime 2 duo 20 vinti 2nde secunde 3 tres 30 trenta 3tie tertie half = medie / medietate 4 quatro 40 quaranta 4te quarte 5 cinque 50 cinquanta 5te quinte adverbial numerals: ordinal -e > -o 6 sex 60 sexanta 6te sexte 7 septe 70 septanta 7me septime 8 octo 80 octanta 8ve octave 9 nove 90 novanta 9ne none 10me decime 20me 100me last ultime cento 100 Comma for decimal point. mille 1.000 million 1.000.000 -illion/-illiardo de cosas. milliardo 1.000.000.000 ^^ billion 1.000.000.000.000 billiardo 1.000.000.000.000.000 trillion 1.000.000.000.000.000.000 trilliardo 1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000 quatrillion 1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000 quatrilliardo 1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000 quintillion 1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000 quintilliardo 1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000 simple simple / simplice double duple / duplice triple triple / triplice quadruple quadruple quintuple quintuple sixfold sextuple sevenfold septuple eightfold octuple ninefold nonuple tenfold decuple 100fold centuple ======================================================= WORD BUILDING, sections 135ff, pages 56ff (Summary; examples and some notes omitted.) (Note: use of the mark ' for pronunciation indicates (a stress on the vowel or syllable preceding the mark.) Nouns derived from Nouns ------------------------ -ada 1. 'product made from ...'; 2. 'series of ...' -age (pronun. -aje) 'collection of ...' (Note: -agi- before -a- or -o- of additional suffix) -alia 'worthless collection of ...' -ano 1. 'native, citizen, or inhabitant of ....'; 2. 'language of ...'; 3. 'adherent or follower of ...' (fem. -ana in senses 1,3) (Note: used with names of places and persons. In the case of place names not ending in -a or -o as also of all names of persons, the euphonic variant -iano is to be preferred.) -ario I. 'person concerned with or characterized by ...'; II. 1. 'collection of ...'; 2. 'place containing ...' -astro 1. 'inferior or worthless ...'; 2. 'related through remarriage of a parent' (fem. -astra) -ata 'contents of or quantity contained in one ...' -ato 'function, status, rank, jurisdiction, period of office, or territory of a ...' -eria (pronun. -eri'a) 1. 'place where ... is made, worked, kept, or sold'; 2. 'art, craft, trade, or practice of working with ...'; 3. 'behavior of a ... or like that of a ...' -ero 'one who works with or deals in ...' -ese 1. 'native, citizen, or inhabitant of ...'; 2. 'language of ...' -essa 1. 'female ...'; 2. 'wife of a ...' -eto 'grove of ... trees' -etto, -etta 'little, small, or minor ...' -ia (pronun. -'ia) 'country, province, or region of the ...s, or named for' (Note: used with names of peoples and persons.) -ia (pronun. -i'a) 1. 'state, quality, status, or jurisdiction of (a, an) ...' 2. 'art, science, or practice, also profession, establishment, etc. of (a, an) ...' (Note: used mostly with compounds.) -ica 'science or study of the ...' -ico 'one skilled in the art or science of ...' -iera 1. 'that which contains, covers, or protects ...'; 2. 'field, mine, quarry, etc. where ... grows or is found' -iero 'tree, bush, plant, etc. bearing or producing ...' -il 'place where ...s are kept' (Note: used with names of animals.) -ina 'substance made from, characterizing, related to, etc. ...' (Note: used mostly as technical [chemical] suffix.) -ismo 1. 'state or practice of being a ...'; 2. [Med.] ' abnormal condition resulting from excess of ...'; 3. 'doctrine or practice of, or concerned with ...'; 4. 'something characteristic of ..., or of the language of ...' -ista 1. 'one who practices the art or science of ...'; 2. 'adherent of the doctrine of...' -ita 1. 'inhabitant, citizen, or native of ...'; 2. 'member, adherent, or partisan of' -ite 'rock or other mineral containing ..., resembling ..., characterized by ..., related to ...' (Note: used mostly in technical [mineralogical] terms.) -itis 'inflammatory disease of the ...' (Note: used with names of parts of the body, chiefly in technical [medical] term.) -oide 'something like, or shaped like ...' -osis 'abnormal or diseased condition, state, or process of the ..., caused by ..., characterized by ..., etc.' (Note: used chiefly in technical [medical] words.) Adjectives derived from Nouns ----------------------------- -al 'pertaining to ..., characteristic of ..., etc.' -an 'pertaining to ...'; esp. 'native of ...' (Note: used with names of places and persons. In the case of place names not ending in -a or -o as also of all names of persons, the euphonic variant -ian is to be preferred.) -ari 'pertaining to ..., consisting of ..., etc.' -ate 'having a ... or ...s' -esc 1. 'like, similar to, or characteristic of a ...'; 2. 'in the manner or style of ...' -ese 'pertaining to'; esp. 'native to ..., of ...' (Note: used with names of places.) -ic 'of, pertaining to ..., characterized by ...' -ifere 'bearing, producing, yielding' -ific 'making, causing ...' -in 'of, pertaining to, etc., ...' (Note: used particularly with names of animals.) -ista pertaining to ...ism or ...ists' (Note: not distinct from nouns in apposition.) -oide 'like ..., shaped like ...' (Note: used chiefly in technical term.) -ose 'having, abounding in ..., characterized by' (Note: -ion plus -ose > -iose.) -otic 'pertaining to ...osis' Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives --------------------------------------- -ar 1. 'to make use of ....; to apply, give, etc. ...'; 2. 'to render ..., to make ..., etc.' -ificar 'to make, render ...; to convert into ...' -isar 1. 'to make into ...'; 2. 'to apply ...; to make use (of the principles) of ..., etc.'; 3. 'to render ..., to make' Nouns derived from Adjectives ----------------------------- -essa 'state or quality of being ...' -ia (pronun. -'ia) 'state or quality of being ...' (Note: used chiefly with adjectives in -nte.) -ia (pronun. -i'a) 'state or quality of being ...' (Note: used chiefly with technical compounds.) -ismo 1. 'state or quality of being ...'; 2. 'doctrine or practice concerned with what is ...'; 3. 'something characteristic of the ... people or their language' -ista 'adherent of the doctrine or practice concerned with what is ...' -itate 'state or quality of being ...' (Note: synonym of -itude, but preferred when the base is already a derivative.) -idude 'state or quality of being ...' Adjectives derived from Adjectives ---------------------------------- -ette 'somewhat ...; pretty ...' Derivations from Verbs ---------------------- -ada n 'continued or prolonged action of ...ing' -age n 'action or process of ...ing' -eria n 1. 'place where ... is done'; 2. 'art, craft, trade, or practice of ...ing; also: the product of such work' -amento, -imento n 'action or result of ...ing' -ante, -ente, iente adj '...ing, that ...s' (Note: identical with present participle.) -ante, -ente, -iente n 'one who or that which is ...ing or ...s' -antia, -entia, -ientia n 'state or quality of ...ing' -abile, -ibile adj 'that can be ...ed; that is worthy to be ...ed' -ation, -ition n 'action or result of ...ing' -ative, -itive adj 1. 'tending to ...'; 2. 'having the function of ...ing' -ator, -itor n 'one who, or that which ...s' -atori, -itori adj 'pertaining to, or serving for, the action of ...ing' -atorio, -itorio n 'place where, installation or instrument with which ...ing is done' -atrice, -itrice n 'a woman who ...s' -atura, itura n 'action or result of ...ing' -ate, -ite adj 1. '...ed, being ...ed'; 2. '...ed, having ...ed (Note: identical with the past participle.) General Prefixes ---------------- ad- (v) 'to, toward, into' (Note: by extension, 'change into, increase of intensity, etc.'.) ante- (n, adj, v) 'preceding in time or space' anti- (n, adj) opposed to, against; opposite' (Note: ant- before 'h' and vowels.) auto- (n, adj) 'self' (Note: aut- before vowels.) circum- (adj, v) 'about, around' co- (n, adj) 'joint, fellow' con- (n, adj, v) 'with, together, jointly, mutually' (Note: 'n-' mutates under certain condition.) contra- (n, v) 'against, opposing; counter or contrary to' dis- (n, adj, v) 1. 'apart, separately; divided, scattered'; 2. 'not ..., contrary or opposite of' ex- (n) 'former' extra- 1. (n, adj, v) 'outside; outside the scope of'; 2. (adj) 'highly, unusually, very' gran- (in names of kinship) 'grand-, great-' (Note: for further reduplication, the prefix 'pro-' is available.) in- I. (v) 'in, into'; II. (n, adj) 'not ...; lacking; lack of' (Note: 'n-' mutates under certain conditions.) inter- (n, adj, v) 'between, among' intra- (adj) 'inside, within' intro- (v) 'inwards, to the inside' mis- (v) 'badly, wrongly' non- (n, adj) 'not ..., lack or absence of' per- (v) 1. 'through, throughout'; 2. 'thoroughly, extremely, very' post- (n, adj, v) 'behind, after in time, location, or order' pre- (n, adj, v) 'before in time, position, or rank' pro- 1. (n, adj) 'in favor of, on the isde of'; 2. (v) 'forward, forth' re- (v) 1. 'back, backwards'; 2. 'again' retro- (v) 'back, backwards' sub- (n, adj, v) 1. 'under, underneath'; 2. 'subordinate; subdivision of'; 3. 'slightly, slight' (Note: 'b-' mutates under certain conditions.) super- (n, adj, v) 1. 'over, above'; 2. 'very; excessively, too much' trans- (n, adj, v) 1. 'beyond, across; surpassing' 2. 'though, across' ultra- (n, adj, v) 'beyond' vice- (n) 'one who takes the place of' Technical Prefixes ------------------ a- 'not ...; without ...; lacking ...' (Note: an- before 'h' and vowels.) amphi- 1. 'both, on both sides'; 2, 'around, about' ana- 'again' apo- 1. 'off, away'; 2. [Chem.] 'formed from, related to' cata- 1. 'down, downwards'; 2. 'against, reflected' (Note: cat- before 'h' and vowels.) dia- 1. 'through'; 2. 'away, apart' (Note: di- before vowels.) dys- 'bad, badly, not well' ecto- 'outside, external' (Note: ect- before vowels.) en- 'in, into' (Note: em- before, 'b', 'm', 'p', 'ph'.) endo- 'within' (Note: end- before vowels.) ento- 'within, inside' (Note: ent- before vowels.) epi- 'on, upon' (Note: ep- before 'h' and vowels.) exo- 'without, outside' (Note: ex- before vowels.) hyper- 'over; beyond; too much' hypo- 1. 'below, beneath, under'; 2. 'to a lower degree; somewhat'; 3. [Chem.] 'indicating a lower state of oxidation, or a lower position in a series of compounds' meta- 1. 'behind'; 2. 'beyond, transcending, higher'; 3. 'after, subsequent to' (Note: met- before 'h' and vowels.) para- 1. ' besides, alongside'; 2. 'amiss, faulty, wrong'; 3. 'resembling; modification of' (Note: par- before 'h' and vowels.) peri- 'around, about' syn- 'with, together; alike' (Note: syl- before 'l'; sym- before 'b', 'm', 'p', and 'ph'.)