The following is the bibliographic essay which I compiled as background for my own research interests in literary history, as explained in more detail in the start page. You should really read the start page before using this very much, and it would also be a good idea to check the page about my approaches to citation and to footnoting, both of which are somewhat unconventional. But starting here is hardly a bad idea.
This document is not intensively hyperlinked and is not going to be; it is out of date and will not be updated. Nonetheless, I hope it's some use to you.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Due to the enormous amount of literature confronting the modern scholar, an alarmingly high number of bibliographic discoveries are determined simply by the libraries to which one has access.- Potts 1990a: vii.
Chapter 2 covers the period from 475 BC to AD 525 in the following modern nations: Yemen, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrein, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia. In addition it covers the Xinjiang-Uigur region of China ("Xinjiang", below) and Asiatic Russia ("Siberia", below). Of these last two, the former is the source of much of the total literature sometimes alleged to belong to this period and region; the latter, of none that I have found or heard of.
Although this region includes in Iraq and Iran the heart of one of the world's oldest civilisations, it is defined mainly as a space between other civilisations. So the lack of general histories of the region is no surprise. It is still, at least for my purposes, unfortunate. In a nutshell, the research for this chapter took me from general histories, to literary histories, to actual literature—only then to turn into retreats to general histories of a different sort. Since I would not wish this series of difficulties on anyone else, I'm providing in this note extremely detailed guidance to the books I worked with; this note is therefore far longer than the chapter that results from the research. (Just to be clear, my including a reference in this note absolutely doesn't mean I've even seen it, much less skimmed it, still less read it carefully.) I begin with basic references for the core area, proceed to a language-by-language account of the languages I investigated as potentially relevant, add some pointers on the religions of the region, and conclude with a country-by-country account of general histories. All of the references are as bibliographically punctilious as I can make them. This is because the list is not meant for specialists in the topics discussed (as far as I know, there are in fact no human beings who specialise in all the topics discussed, although Richard Frye comes close), and because it often (not just occasionally) took me months or even years to find something on the basis of cryptic, conventionally abbreviated, or erroneous references in the specialist literature. See Sogdian below, for one example.
The nearest substitutes for general histories of the region as a whole are general histories of "Iran", since (as will emerge below) peoples speaking Iranian languages occupied much of the region during this period, and sometimes ruled much of the rest. So, years ago, I began my work with The Cambridge History of Iran (= CHI), volumes 2 through 4. Frye 1975, volume 4, is a detailed account, as is typical of the Cambridge histories. However, in contrast to the apparent remit of the series as a whole, this volume deals with the "eastern Iran" of central Asia only for periods and places which were under Muslim rule. Yarshater 1983a and 1983b, volumes 3(1) and 3(2), constitute an immense resource for answering almost any question about pre-Islamic Iranic speakers as well as about the empires named in the title; most of the chapters are by leading authorities in the subject. That said, volume 3(2) substantially confuses the student of literary history—well, confused me anyway—by making up for volume 4's omissions and dealing with writings in eastern Iranian languages that come from times well after the volume's stated end point. Gershevitch 1985, volume 2, is very curiously organised but does cover (spottily) the first 160 or so years of the period.
I started my work on this chapter in spring 1996; four years later, I remained deeply confused about the history of my region, especially of its central parts, and about how that history related to literature. Since the CHI's chapters on the eastern Iranian literatures tend to be vague about the ages of the texts they discuss, some of this confusion resulted from those chapters' appearance in the wrong volume of the history. But there are intrinsic reasons for it as well: in this region, political power and literary production were unusually separate; governments had shorter lifespans than to the east or west, and religions (even languages) more turbulent circumstances; agriculture, and hence, usually, literature, had a shakier footing where it was present. At any rate, I felt, whenever I approached the chapter over several years, surrounded by mist, and uncertain whether I could say anything.
So before I proceed to individual languages I want to point out the books that resolved much of this difficulty for me and, to all intents and purposes, restored my faith in the possibility of this work, by treating the history not of particular peoples or polities but of the central spatial area of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and Xinjiang-Uigur (along with Pakistan, northern India, Tibet, and other parts of China). These books belong to the UNESCO-sponsored History of Civilizations of Central Asia (= HCCA). The volumes so far published have consistently covered this entire area, rather than narrow their focus to whatever is better known or more entertaining to write about (although such topics do usually get more and longer chapters). In reputation they suffer from the fact that much of each was written in the 1980s in officially Marxist nations; in reality they too often suffer from assertions most easily explained as nationalist. But they are nevertheless invaluably broad and thorough, and many chapters are the only treatments in Western languages of matters studied primarily in Russian or Chinese, and are footnoted to boot. Meanwhile, the authors treating subjects more often discussed in English are usually among the leading authorities. In sum, in a better world, as many libraries would own these as do own CHI. The volumes published to date include Dani and Masson 1992, volume I; Harmatta et alii 1994, volume II; Litvinsky et alii 1996, volume III; Asimov and Bosworth 1998, volume IV part One; and Asimov and Bosworth 2000, volume IV part Two. (All are in print at this writing, and cost 300 FF each, should anyone reading this want to donate to his or her favourite library.)
(Do not confuse the HCCA with The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Sinor 1990, which cannot replace it. This was the first book I turned to years ago, but it turned out then, and again on re-examination now, to be totally unhelpful in most respects. It isn't systematic, but instead covers one topic per chapter. Many of these topics are not all that early, and nearly half concern Europe not Asia! What's left deals with peoples copiously documented elsewhere—the Hsiung-nu, the Kushans, and the Türks.
(While on the subject of confusion: a number of references implied that Akiner and Sims-Williams 1997 would prove to be a full guide to literatures of much of the region, a notion consistent with the book's title although not implied by the title. As it turns out, the book is a collection of papers, of which only Sundermann 1997 bears on literary history of this period. I mention this here because the book is extremely hard to find.)
Introduction Languages
introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Many languages have been written in the region, quite a few of them in the relevant period. For this draft of chapter 2, I have not satisfied my own strict criteria for coverage of most of these languages, but have found (after three years of intermittent efforts) guidance to most of the literatures that showed any promise of being relevant. In the ultimate book, the main discussions of each language will appear only with regard to the chapter for which that language is really first relevant, but for this stand-alone draft, you're getting the kitchen sink. In the detailed discussion below, I treat languages which can be thought of as "native" to the region first, followed by those whose literary centres of gravity are outside it; this is intended to emphasise the extent to which the surviving literature of the places and times covered by this chapter is composed, in fact, of small segments of the enormous literatures of other regions. One consequence of this fact is that information on surviving material is relatively hard to come by; histories of these major literatures tend to emphasise their main streams, not the bywaters of central Asia. Within each of the two main divisions, I cover languages roughly in order of the age of surviving remains.
A number of these languages were used to write Manichæan works, usually in a "Manichæan script" (derived from Aramaic script) devised by Mani. Manichæan works are often excluded from otherwise comprehensive bibliographies of languages, but are covered by major separate bibliographies which are discussed at the end.
I should emphasise that if I had, when I started, what looked like credible information saying a language was not written before AD 1000, or anyway not in this region, I didn't look further, and so it is not in the following (not as exhaustive as it looks) catalogue, even though that catalogue does include many less important or later languages for which I had less reliable initial information. Punjabi and Russian are two examples of "outside" languages I omit below; "native" ones include Pashto and Kazakh. I intend no insult by this, obviously, only some limitation on the amount of work I had to do.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
This isolated language was written in Iraq from around 3000 BC or earlier to an uncertain date after the fall of Babylon in 539 BC (Michalowski 1995: 2279, 2289). I'm unclear on the extent to which it was written elsewhere; since written Akkadian (which spread widely) depends to some extent on written Sumerian, the question is awkward. The fundamental catalogue of texts is Rykle Borger's (Borger 1967, Borger 1975a, Borger 1975b). For subsequent publications, see: 1) the general bibliography of cuneiform, Keilschriftbibliographie, appearing roughly annually in Orientalia (Rome), since volume IX of the new series, 1940; 2) the wider bibliography of the ancient Near East, Bibliographie, appearing in apparently every issue of Archiv für Orientforschung (Berlin) since volume III, 1926. Finally, there is an incomplete catalogue of dated cuneiform tablets from the first millennium BC and after on the Web, Everling 2000.
Sumerian was certainly still known in this period (for a copy of Lugal-E from Borsippa see Oelsner 1986: 227) but whether it was still used for new compositions is unclear to me. Thomson 1984: 32 unequivocally indicates otherwise, but I have been plausibly told that things are less certain than that, and have not been able to go to the primary sources to see for myself in time for this draft of this chapter.
This Semitic language was written in Iraq from at latest 2500 BC to at earliest AD 100 (Huehnergard 1995: 2117-2119), and outside Iraq (primarily to the west and north, and so outside of the relevant region) for much of that time. The fundamental bibliographies are the same as for Sumerian.
It is, however, much clearer that Akkadian was still written in this period (an incomplete catalogue of texts by date, Everling 2000, nevertheless abundantly demonstrates this). For the later parts of it (after 331 BC) Oelsner 1986 provides an invaluable survey, with details on literary as well as other kinds of texts. Regrettably, the main surveys of writings 475-331 BC (referred to in Stolper 1994: 234 n. 1) specifically exclude literary texts (on this matter see also my bibliographic reference below, concerning Briant 1996). I combed Stolper's bibliography for references to texts' publications, but could not obtain all of the volumes listed there, and found no translations in most of those I did see. What few Akkadian works from either part of the period I have found in translation, I've looked at for this draft.
This isolated (but perhaps related to Dravidian, Reiner 1992: 408) language was written in Iran (mostly in the southwest) from at latest 2200 BC to at earliest 400 BC, according to Reiner 1992: 407. Additionally Reiner notes an earlier script, believed to represent Elamite but undeciphered, dating from about 3200 BC onward. The language is still incompletely understood. Remains from after 475 BC consist, per Reiner, of inscriptions and administrative documents, of which I ignored the latter.
This is an Iranian language native to somewhere in the central part of the region—whether eastern Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan or Uzbekistan is debated—whose remains consist entirely of the (surviving parts of the) main sacred book of Zoroastrianism, the Avesta. Usually the oldest Avestan texts are believed to be those composed by Zarathustra himself—partly on the grounds that they are more similar to the oldest Sanskrit texts than other Avestan writing is (Boyce 1975: 3). The one real certainty about the date of Zarathustra is that the traditional one (early 6th century BC) is wrong; early Greek references to him (not later than the 4th century BC) make it appear unlikely that he falls within this chapter's period. The Avesta is usually believed to have been closed no later than under the Sasanians, and so perhaps within this chapter's period. (Wiesehöfer 1996: 94-95 suggests the closure came in the 4th century AD, but there seem to be many different traditional dates for this closure, and scholars who support each, generally without mentioning any of the others or why they reject them, so who knows? Personally, anyway, I find the 4th century relatively plausible if not too late for the existing Avesta, whose relationship with the ultimate Sasanid Avesta, an immensely larger compilation, is not particularly obvious to me. See on this also note 90 above.) On Zarathustra's date especially see the discussion in Boyce and Grenet 1991: 368-370 and my discussion of these claims in a Usenet post, Bernstein 1998. For a general discussion of the Avesta see inter alia Gershevitch 1968: 10-28; Klíma 1968: 7-17; Bishop 1988. The CHI, volume 2, offers only an essay on "The Old Eastern Iranian World View According to the Avesta", by M. Schwartz, chapter 13 and pages 640-663.
These are the languages or dialects of South Arabian (a Semitic language group or language written primarily in Yemen) as detailed in Jamme 1955 and in Breton 1999: 29-31. These languages were written from the 8th century BC (or earlier, Breton 1999: 22) to at least the 6th century AD (Beeston 1984: 2 says AD 570 for Sabæan). The inscriptions which form most of the survivals are indexed in Harding 1971, but I haven't seen from Jamme's examples any pressing reason to comb them for this draft; per Breton, the non-epigraphic survivals are rural business documents.
Aramaic is a Semitic language which first appears in Syria (see below under "Western Aramaic"). It appears that written Aramaic is not known from the region covered in chapter 2 until the 7th century BC (Beyer 1986: 12-13). Beyer 1986 is the main bibliographic resource for Aramaic as a whole although it is being supplanted by An Aramaic Bibliography, of which so far published is Fitzmyer & Kaufman 1992. Dialects Beyer discusses which this heading covers are Late Ancient Aramaic (attested in many media but little literature); Achæmenid Imperial Aramaic (an official language of the Achæmenid Empire); its offshoots Babylonian Targumic (the language of the Babylonian Targums, to wit Onqelos and Jonathan), Babylonian Documentary Aramaic (a language used in Jewish documents, which Beyer treats unusually unclearly), and Arsacid (an official language of the Arsacid/"Parthian" Empire); and, as dialects of the Eastern Aramaic branch of the language proper, East Mesopotamian (known from inscriptions only), Jewish Old Babylonian Aramaic (also not well attested), and perhaps Jewish Middle Babylonian Aramaic (the language of the Babylonian Talmud and other rabbinic works). My research on Aramaic for this draft of this chapter has been spotty, except with regard to Jewish works, the vast majority of which (for example all of the Targums) were attributed by relevant scholars either to later dates or to Palestinian, rather than Babylonian, writers.
This Iranian language was written in Fars, southwestern Iran, from about 520 BC (per an inscription which claims the script was invented for the purpose of that inscription being inscribed!); by the 4th century BC it apparently was already changing into Middle Persian. It survives only in inscriptions, which are discussed in Gershevitch 1968: 6-10; Klíma 1968: 7-17; Schmitt 1989a: 58-60; and in wider discussions of the Achæmenid empire (below). Note that the stages of the Persian language are marked largely by new sources of writing system and loan words; the Old Persian stage got these from Akkadian.
This Iranian language was the native language of the Arsacid dynasty (and hence perhaps a native language of Mani, whose mother was descended from that dynasty), but they did not use it as an official language, and the surviving literature in it is much later. The oldest surviving writing at all is ostraca from about 100 BC on; the last dates to perhaps the 10th century AD. The latter is, as most surviving Parthian is, Manichæan. Parthian writing in general is discussed in Boyce 1983a and in Sundermann 1989a: 116-117. The Parthian Manichæan texts are covered in the general Manichæan bibliographies mentioned below.
This Iranian language left (scanty) remains in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Xinjiang-Uigur, at least. What little remains is enumerated and discussed in Gershevitch 1983. There is a single Manichæan fragment and at least one Buddhist one; but only one inscription was sufficiently understood to be discussed by Gershevitch, and it is not relevant to the topic. Sims-Williams 1989b: 230-232 tells a terser but similar story. The texts date from the 2nd to the 9th centuries AD or perhaps beyond.
This Iranian language left considerable remains across the region's eastern half. Xinjiang-Uigur and the Gansu province of China provide most of the literary texts; Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Mongolia, Pakistan and Kashmir are among other sources of inscriptions and documents. The oldest writings date to the 2nd century AD; it is not evident to me that any of them date after the 10th. Gharib 1995: xix-xxvii gives a recent and informative survey; Dresden 1983 is also helpful despite the unfortunate disconnection between text and bibliography typical of the CHI (but unusually for the CHI, Dresden's bibliography is annotated). Klíma 1968: 63-64 is little use. The vast majority of the texts are Buddhist, Manichæan or Christian; Manichæan and Christian texts are written in Manichæan or Syriac script rather than Sogdian script. Hence they are usually studied separately. For the Manichæan writings see as usual the bibliographies below, besides Dresden 1983: 1224-1225 and Gharib 1995: xxii-xxiii. For Buddhist we have: a more detailed account in Dresden 1983: 1221-1224; Gharib 1995: xix-xxi; and Hansen 1968: 83-90. Utz 1980 is surprisingly unhelpful, although it does include a catalogue of modern publications. Hansen's is much the most detailed of these surveys but uses abbreviations which go unexplained; for these, Gharib is particularly helpful. For Christian works we have brief surveys in Dresden 1983: 1225-1227 and Gharib 1995: xxiii-xxiv, and (again the most detailed) Hansen 1968: 91-99. Finally, for the few literary writings outside these religions, and the documents and inscriptions, see Dresden 1983: 1227-1229 and the relatively detailed account in Gharib 1995: xix, xxiv-xxvii. Note that Sims-Williams 1989a: 174-175 provides a brisk and blunt introduction to the then existing studies, of which I wish I had known years ago.
While Sogdian texts have consumed a disproportionate share of my research time (largely due to difficulties locating them from Hansen's cryptic and sometimes erroneous [Sims-Williams 1989a: 175, n. 24] references!), I cannot pretend to have surveyed the corpus with adequate care or completeness, and this is, I think, one of the main weaknesses of the research for this draft of the chapter. Ultimately, I decided, for this draft, to assume that all Buddhist Sogdian works were too late for the chapter's period-since the only dates, or anyway centuries, ever cited for them are in fact too late, and since they are apparently uniformly translations from the Chinese, hence presumably texts composed outside the region-but to deal with the Christian ones (mostly translations from the Syriac) and the Manichæan ones (often thought to be translations from the Parthian) on a case by case basis, for those texts I could find, usually going by the more secure guesses as to the dates and provenances of the originals.
This Iranian language left an odd variety of remains in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, and in various much later Arabic manuscripts (glosses in a dictionary, entries in a glossary of calendric and astronomical terms, and quoted sentences in law books). This per MacKenzie 1983. Klíma 1968: 64-65 is again unhelpful; MacKenzie also does not pretend to offer a complete survey; the dates cited range from the 3rd to the 13th centuries AD. There's no evidence that any surviving Khwarezmian texts are relevant to my topic, but relevant texts so often go unmentioned that this isn't reassuring; apparently the most plausible possibilities, documentary remains, are studied only in Russian. The treatment in Humbach 1989: 193-194 at least implies that as of that date nothing relevant had been published, even in Russian.
This Semitic language is a branch of Aramaic, and is still spoken (or was, in recent decades) in southern Iraq, whence also its manuscripts (and inscribed bowls and lead rolls) derive. The standard bibliography is Rudolph 1976; I've also relied on lists of published Mandaic works which are contained in books primarily concerned with aspects of the Problem of Mandæan Origins, a controversy surprisingly vigorous for the small number of people involved. These lists are contained in Yamauchi 1970: 1-4 and Gündüz 1994: 55-62. Beyer 1986: 46 is also helpful. The consensus seems to be that some Mandaic literature is as old as the 3rd century AD, while Gündüz cites other material which is not necessarily older than the 17th. My review of Mandaic material for this draft has been cursory, and unfocused chronologically due to my failure to look at Gündüz's book (let alone Rudolph's paper) until late in the research.
This Iranian language has apparently been written mainly in Iran, although many of the surviving manuscripts derive most recently from India, there are considerable Manichæan remains from Xinjiang-Uigur and scanty manuscript remains from Egypt, and there are inscriptions from many other locations, because this was the official language of the Sasanid Empire. It is commonly known as "Pahlevi" ("Pahlavi", "Pehlevi"). (There appear to be linguistic grounds for reserving this name for Parthian instead, but nobody does.) As I mentioned under Old Persian, stages of Persian are defined largely by their sources for script and loan words; Pahlevi got these from Aramaic. There are numerous more or less detailed accounts of Pahlevi literature, which is probably the most prominent of the Middle Iranian literatures generally, and includes considerable Zoroastrian and Manichæan corpora. As usual, the Manichæan material tends to be treated separately. For the non-Manichæan material, the fundamental account to which most others refer back is West 1904. Other accounts of bibliographic value include Tavadia 1956, Boyce 1968a, de Menasce 1975, de Menasce 1983, Gignoux 1983, Sundermann 1989b: 140-141 (uncharacteristically unhelpful for the volume it is part of) and Tafazzuli 1998 (which may well replace West but which I could not read, except for Roman-script footnotes and bibliography). Klíma 1968: 25-63 is quicker reading than most of these but as usual no help with bibliography. I examined Middle Persian literature more thoroughly than any other for this draft of this chapter; I emphasise that because nearly all of it turns out to have been, either written slightly later than this chapter's period (in the century following AD 531), or written, or compiled into a final form, much later (following AD 750), and so is here omitted.
This Semitic language was written, during the period covered by this chapter, only in inscriptions, as far as is now known, and these come from across the southwestern end of the area covered by this chapter, obviously primarily from Saudi Arabia. On these see again Harding 1971; as with Sabæan et alii (above), I haven't looked at them for this draft. However, considerable poetry ostensibly from this period (5th century AD on) survives that was first written down centuries later, and this poetry is usually considered essentially authentic as a whole, although various individual poems and individual wordings are doubted. The standard reference on it is Sezgin 1975: 109-315. There are much less useful discussions, in English, of early Arabic literature in Beeston et alii 1983. A representative statement about the lack of surviving writing from this period is made by Beeston at Beeston et alii 1983: 3-4. I have made some effort to survey the available poetry, hampered however by the fact that several of the main books of translations cannot be found in Wisconsin. This is unfortunate, given that pre-Islamic Arabic poetry is actually perhaps the largest surviving body of writing from this chapter's place and time of secular intent.
This Iranian language survives in writings from the city of Khotan in Xinjiang, which are Buddhist and plentiful. There are also a few writings in a similar, or the same, language from near a site called Tumshuq, also in Xinjiang (though not especially close to Khotan).
None of the references listed for Khotanese say explicitly whether they also treat Tumshuqese survivals, but nearly every edition or discussion of these survivals lists the few known documents, for example Emmerick 1985: 7-8 and Emmerick 1989: 204-205.
For still another Saka (?) language, attested in a few inscriptions found in Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, see Tocharian, next below.
Emmerick 1992 is a nearly ideal survey of Khotanese (which Emmerick 1989: 205-206 is not). There is a much more introductory account, which however is occasionally a useful supplement, in Bailey 1983. Finally, Hansen 1968: 77-83 is rarely useful and Klíma 1968: 65 never is. I made some effort but not a consistent one to locate these texts; many of the editions Emmerick cites cannot be found in Wisconsin, while with one exception those I did locate turned out to be rather later than this chapter's period. (Emmerick only occasionally gives dates, which is why his survey isn't wholly ideal. Of these dates the earliest are in the 5th century AD but the bulk in the 10th. The principal 5th-century work appears to be relevant to my topic but very probably of Indian rather than local origin; see Canevascini 1993, pp. xiv-xv on the date, pp. xii-xviii implying the source.)
Introduction Languages introd. 1
2 3 4
5 6 M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
This Indo-European (but not Iranian) language was written in Xinjiang-Uigur, at least, from something like AD 500 to AD 1000. It comes in two dialects, known as Tocharian A and Tocharian B, or alternatively in two separate languages, known as Agnean and Kuchean; the latter terminology seems to be reviving now that it's fairly clear that the historical Tocharoi (the progenitors of the Kushan empire's rulers) did not speak Tocharian. (On this there appears to be general agreement in Harmatta et alii 1994, and although Harmatta himself is often rather speculative, his argument in Harmatta 1994: 417-421 that the earlier Kushans spoke a Saka or Saka-like language is fairly convincing.) I have relied primarily on (the utterly inadequate first three pages of) Krause 1971. Additional references (and clarification of Krause's) can be found in Schwentner 1959, Krause and Thomas 1960: 21-32, and Zimmer 1976; but these also show that the vast majority of interest in Tocharian has been linguistic, rather than literary in any sense at all. In my decidedly scattershot survey of what I could find through these sources, little was dated (except with what only Tocharianists could consider chronological precision: 'between AD 500 and AD 1000, give or take some centuries'), and less was of interest for the topic; of course, not one page of what was of interest was dated. Quite belatedly, in despair, I decided to try the Web, where, astonishingly, there is a recent bibliography, Gippert 1997. There I learnt of a rare paper of recent date whose title implies it treats the state of knowledge of Tocharian literary history, Schmidt 1994. In fact it turns out to be only an update to, of all things, a discussion in English, Sander 1979, which is rather broader than Tocharian proper and says little about it. So there appears to be no hope of finding out why Tocharianists think their language was written in the sixth century (Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya 1996: 442 seems to deny this), nor whether they mean before 525 in saying so, and I've ignored all Tocharian works for this draft of this chapter.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4
5 6 M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
This Iranian language is famously spoken today in Turkey, Iran and Iraq. I have not been able to find out anything reliable about its literary history prior to maybe the 14th century (and even accounts of later literature do not look trustworthy to me). Chaliand 1993, which I do not consider a reliable source on literary history, asserts (p. 11) that the oldest written Kurdish dates to the seventh century. The only reference mentioned there for literature is Sajjadi 1952, which I can't read. (Chaliand at least shows good taste by omitting the unreliable books in Western languages that I've found.) At any rate, I consider it highly unlikely that any Kurdish fantasy or related writing survives from before AD 525.
This Iranian language has been for the past thousand years one of the main literary languages in the world. It is now written throughout the West as well as in Iran and nearby areas; it was written in, say, the seventeenth century from Bosnia to Bangladesh. But in the period covered by this chapter, it wasn't written at all yet; as Old Persian draws its script and vocabulary from Akkadian, and Middle from Aramaic, New Persian draws these from Arabic, and by AD 525, Arabic was not yet offering any such influence. Among the numerous treatments of this literature, I'll confine myself to mentioning Rypka 1968a: 69-351, 419-482, 607-609; Yarshater 1988: 73-518; and chapters in volumes 4 and after of the CHI, beginning with Frye 1975: 595-632.
The word "Turkish" is regrettably confusing both in principle and in actual scholarly usage. As I understand it, essentially the entire history of the diversification of the Turkic languages, as also of the Slavic languages, falls within historic times; this doesn't mean that all of it is actually documented, but much of it is. Whereas anglophone scholars use "Slavonic" for the oldest Slavic writings (thus distinguishing them from Slovenian, Slovakian, etc.), the oldest Turkic writings are usually called "Old Turkish". To make matters worse, various later periods in the history of the Turkic literary languages are named after various empires, and so, unfortunately, are modern Turkic languages. Thus Kirghiz, Uighur, and so forth. It's basically fair to say that any word that's ever been used for any group of more than ten Turks is the name of both a literary period and a modern language, probably also of at least one empire, and these don't necessarily have anything other than Turkicness (if that) in common. As a result, it's more or less impossible for anyone who hasn't mastered the entire scholarly literature on the Turkic languages and their literatures to be certain about anything pertaining to their histories.
That said, I'm anyway somewhat confident that I can make the claim that no Turkic language was written before AD 600, which is implied where Bazin 1964: 197 writes of an inscription «les caractères, qui n'ont pas été tous identifiés, présentent des formes très archaïques (VIIe siècle?); ce pourrait être le plus ancien des textes turcs conservés». This claim is not contradicted by any of von Gabain 1964a, von Gabain 1964b, or Caferoǧlu 1964a, or Bombaci 1969. Nor does any other source I saw contradict this date. Assuming AD 600 to be a reliable date, then, there should be no surviving Turkic writing relevant to this chapter; except that it turns out a lot of Manichæan writings survive in Turkic languages, including translations of older works. On those see, of course, the separate discussion of Manichæan bibliography, below.
This is one of the languages of the Caucasus. The Avars are prominent in the history of the early middle ages, and are sometimes said to have come from Central Asia, but the earliest surviving writings apparently date to the tenth century AD, centuries after the assumed migrations and strictly from the Caucasus. See Campbell 1991: 121. Not all writers on Avar acknowledge the relevant inscriptions as Avar; I will be very happy if I can find a work more specifically concerned with them which at least can confirm or disprove Campbell's date for them, and maybe even provide references.
The Uighur empire was a (series of) prominent Turk-ruled empire(s) in the general vicinity of Mongolia and Xinjiang-Uigur, in the eighth and ninth centuries AD. It gave its name to all of: an early Turkic literary language; a group of eastern Turkic languages and their literatures; and a modern eastern Turkic language in particular. Nevertheless there's no reason to think any of these versions of Uighur was written before AD 525, or even AD 900. See Turkish, above, and appropriate essays in Bazin et alii 1964.
This is a Turkic language, so see Turkish, above. According to Benzing 1964a: 721-722, literature actually in Turkmen dates only to the twentieth century AD, although there are Turkmen aspects, linguistically, to isolated examples of eastern Turkish literary works starting in about the eleventh century.
This is another Turkic language. According to Caferoǧlu 1964b: 636, truly literary works in Azeri date back to the thirteenth century AD. When works Caferoǧlu would not consider literary were first written, I haven't been able to find out.
This is a language family, related to Tungusic and to Turkic, and even more recently diversified than Turkic. Poppe 1970: 15 says that the earliest written record in Mongolian is an inscription dating to roughly AD 1225. Given that Liao (below) was probably a Mongolian language, Poppe is in turn probably wrong, but then he was probably not considering (then-) undeciphered dead languages with few remains...
This Uralic language has been written in Siberia since the fourteenth century AD thanks to missionaries (Bátori 1969: IX). It's also known as Zyrian or Syrjanisch. Levin and Potapov 1956 uncharacteristically omits mention of the Komi.
This Iranian language is written in Pakistan and Iran today, so far as I know; its literary beginnings are not certain in what I've seen. The least objectionable source I found is Baluch 1977, which asserts (p. 67) that the literature begins in the fifteenth century apparently because there are ballads attributed to fifteenth-century persons of historical importance (pp. 130 ff.).
This Ugric language is written in Siberia, and apparently has been since at least the eighteenth century, according to Gulya 1966: V. While I do not trust Gulya to be accurate with regard to all dialects of Ostyak, I do also note that Bátori 1969: IX would seem to deny the existence of Finno-Ugric writing earlier than that of Komi, other than in Hungarian, and this implies that Khanty is anyway post-1300. Furthermore, Golden 1990: 254 states that the Khanty were on the European side of the Urals as late as the twelfth century.
This is yet another Turkic language (empire, literary era, etc.). The Uzbek (or Chagatai) phase of eastern Turkish literature began in the fourteenth century or so, but Benzing 1964b: 703-704 implies that literature specifically in the (modern) Uzbek language began in the nineteenth, if not later.
And one last Turkic language. While the Kirghiz phase of Turkish literature in general dates to the tenth century, writing specifically in the Kirghiz language is much later. Anonymous 1964: 760 asserts that Kirghiz literature began in the early twentieth century.
This is a language spoken and written in Siberia, by a people who, according to Potapov 1956: 345-346 and 377, have been literate since perhaps the eighth century, but not in their own language until 1924/1925. (Potapov 1956 comes from a book which is, in general, the most recent and unbiased treatment of Siberian history prior to Russian conquest which I've been able to find; I say this not as a compliment to Soviet historiography, in whose failings this book shares, but as a comment on the current spate of books ostensibly about Siberia, which are almost without exception really about the Russians there. In general, as presented in Levin and Potapov 1956, peoples of Siberia may have been literate in the major Turkic and Mongol languages earlier, but mostly did not write their own until Christian or Communist missionaries, in the second quarters of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries respectively, invented scripts for those languages.)
This group of Dardic languages, spoken in Afghanistan, apparently was not yet written in 1965 (Edelman 1965: 33).
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6 M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
This Indic language is, of course, one of the major literary languages used by humans to this day. The oldest works in it are generally agreed to be the hymns of the Ṛgveda, whose dating is wildly controverted, roughly between about 8000 and 800 BC; my money is on the later dates (say around 1200). There is nothing resembling a systematic guide to the Sanskrit corpus, nor a recent one which is particularly usable; so far as I know, the search for Sanskrit manuscripts is far from completed, but I haven't heard of any major discoveries made after World War II, which implies that information about such matters is genuinely hard to find. (I've been following Sanskrit scholarship off and on since 1985.) The most formidable help to the researcher is the incomplete A History of Indian Literature edited by Jan Gonda, a majority of whose published fascicules deal with Sanskrit writings. (A representative citation is Norman 1983.) I know of no reason to think this history will be finished; in any event, some of its fascicules are not systematic, and others are at such a high level as to be useless without prior familiarity with the works discussed. At the opposite extreme, we have Banerji 1989, a very helpful book including the especially valuable appendix VII, "A Classified list of Sanskrit Works", pp. 618-632, which however explicitly omits commentaries; since many of the most important works of Sanskrit literature are technically commentaries, this gap should not be ignored. Some references claim that Dasgupta & De 1962 is a systematic account of Sanskrit literature; I must confess that I do not understand their basis for this view of the book. Finally, Sanskrit is well covered in the Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (=EIL). I know of no useful survey published in this century of Sanskrit epigraphy, but then I also haven't looked very hard.
Scholars disagree sharply over the trustworthiness of many Sanskrit ascriptions of authorship until after the period under discussion here; this applies equally to Buddhist, Jain, "Hindu", and secular works. Partly as a result, it's difficult for me to assess whether any of these works claim to have been written in the region under discussion, let alone whether such claims are true. Sanskrit was, certainly, written in the region and period treated by this chapter—in fact the oldest surviving Sanskrit manuscripts come from Afghanistan and from Xinjiang around AD 200 (Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya 1996: 441)—but what is not clear is whether, amid the large amount of copying of works originating from India, surviving texts include works composed in the region as well. The only (inadequate) guidance I've found is through works on Buddhism: Puri 1987: 174-216 describes some writers who worked in or were born in Central Asia; Litvinsky 1999 and more general works on Buddhism provide hints of Central Asian involvement in anonymous Mahayana literature. See note 77 for more information on the latter; of the former, the only relevant work is described above in the chapter text and notes 79-81.
Speaking of humanity's principal languages... This Sinic language has been written in China since at least the sixteenth century BC, and I'm prepared to believe in somewhat earlier dates; the Chinese scholarly tradition does not date any writings before about 2200 BC. (Wu 1982 is a relatively credulous example; see pp. 65-69 and 88.) By far the most useful single book for finding texts in Chinese, in a Western language, is Wilkinson 1998. This is because there is nothing resembling a comprehensive treatment of Chinese textual remains for any period (except perhaps the Ming, AD 1368-1644—Wilkinson 1998: 856-857), in any Western language, and Wilkinson points you to the pieces of the puzzle, with detailed bibliographic guidance, considerable comment on the reliability, comprehensiveness, etc. of the works he discusses, and an uncanny tendency to answer every question at least this reader could think of. Never confuse this book with Wilkinson 1973; while that book was invaluable for its purposes (primarily the study of economic and social history)—I even own a book whose title is Updating Wilkinson!—the new book is enormously better for just about everything, and specifically for literary history. If I understand the libraries correctly, a second edition appeared in 2000, but I've yet to see it. Anyway, there is a catalogue of Chinese texts according to period (says Wilkinson 1973: 12; Wilkinson 1998: 245-246 implies otherwise), but it's in Japanese: Tôyô shiryô shûsei, separately published and also published as volume 23 of Sekai rekishi jiten, both Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1956. I have seen this latter version, and it has no Roman text at all for me to latch on to. Wilkinson 1998: 281 reports the existence of a computer database already embracing surviving (literary?) works up to AD 220, and seeking to reach at least AD 581; presumably this is indexed, but I have not seen it and Wilkinson implies that it's entirely in Chinese. In English, there are five more or less useful works, one the first literary history in our language to include an actual bibliography.
Idema and Haft 1997, the literary history in question. Bibliography is particularly important for histories of Chinese literature in Western languages because so little, relative to the total, has been translated, and the translations are so hard to find in many cases (notably, they often appear in periodicals), that if such a history is to be anything more than an amusing read, and actually refer the reader without Chinese to the works it discusses, it must tell the reader where to find those works. (Readers who do read Chinese need not bother with English-language literary histories anyway!) So although Idema and Haft provide only two or three hundred pages of history—which allows them to do little more than a sketch of the topic—the fact that this is matched to a comparable number of pages of bibliography makes the book far and away preferable to the (slightly) longer previous histories.
Nienhauser 1988, which includes ten essays on genres and around 500 very detailed encylopædia-style entries (on authors, genres, concepts, etc.—with bibliographies, usually). This is a corrected reprint of the far more widely available first edition from Indiana. Volume II, Nienhauser 1998, is not yet widely available in libraries; it contains no additional essays, but does offer bibliographic updates on the existing essays, and new entries. Nienhauser's work is fundamental for studying belles lettres and the like, though not much use for anything else; its structure makes it hard to use as a literary history although it offers most of the raw material for one.
Loewe 1993 is a guide to sixty-four of the more solidly surviving works that date to AD 200 or before, and treats each in detail with considerable bibliographic references.
Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999, The Cambridge History of Ancient China, has numerous chapters which deal with surviving writings, and either go into bibliographic detail themselves, or point to sources that do. (Unfortunately in the extreme, the editors of The Cambridge History of China proper, which begins at 221 BC, decided to exclude literary history altogether from consideration.)
Shaughnessy 1997 introduces the major categories of writings discovered archæologically in recent decades, often with attention to palæography and generally with references to the publications of these writings (rarely later than 1993), which publications are always in Chinese.
For Chinese manuscripts discovered by archæology in Xinjiang, from dates starting no later than 98 BC, see Wilkinson 1998: 766, 780, 795-801. These include numerous government documents, letters, etc. which were originally written in the region. However, literary texts originally written in Xinjiang may not exist. With respect to the period through about AD 200 (including the era of Chinese rule in Xinjiang in this chapter's period), the lack of such texts is strongly implied by E. Bruce Brooks, director of the Warring States Project (a highly controversial revisionist movement in the study of early texts) and professor at Amherst, in an e-mail, Brooks 1998, to the EAAN mailing list, which is the chief Western-language discussion forum on the Internet for East Asia up to AD 200. For later periods, I have no similar basis for my opinion and no obvious place to turn to verify or disprove it. (In particular, the relevant volume of the Cambridge History of China has for the past five years been cited by scholars with publication dates one year in the future of their own; and pending its hypothetical arrival, I've seen no substantial work on the post-AD 200 period in any Western language. My query on the main Western-language mailing list on the period went unanswered.) In any event, I haven't considered Chinese works for this draft of this chapter, following Brooks' advice for older works, and simply accepting the hopelessness of the case for the final few centuries.
This Semitic language is probably the only one about whose age there is even more controversy than about Sanskrit's. The estimates for the age of the oldest surviving texts range from about 1200 to about 100 BC (I am not making this up). However, these texts derive from outside this chapter's region. In any event, Hebrew literature is much less written about than "Jewish" literature, which leaves me unsure whether I can find all surviving writings. Of what I have found, surprisingly little seems to come from the large, prosperous, and long-lived community known to have existed in Iraq from at least the sixth century BC on; I have made an effort to find what I could. The major places I've looked have been Charlesworth 1983-1985, Stemberger 1996, and Waxman 1938.
Aramaic is a Semitic language whose oldest remains were written in Syria in the tenth century BC, according to Beyer 1986: 11. In principle other dialects than Syriac could have imitated the original language's spread from west to east, but in practice, as I read Beyer, only one seems to have done so at all: Nabatæan, attested in inscriptions and a few documents, none of which I've sought for this draft.
This Indo-European language was written in Greece, Italy, and western Turkey beginning in the eighth century BC (to disregard an earlier script irrelevant to this chapter) and across steadily wider regions thereafter. In the area covered by this chapter, Greek is known to have been spoken as far east as Uzbekistan, and it gave its script to Bactrian in Afghanistan. However, of the immense corpus of surviving Greek writing, astonishingly little derives from the area in question. I've thus far catalogued about half of the surviving writings listed in Berkowitz and Squitier 1990. This volume is in essence the index to the TLG database of ancient Greek writings; as of 1997, a new Canon to the database (to say nothing of print form) was overdue, but there has been an update to the database since then which may (I haven't seen it) incorporate such a new Canon. Anyway, the 1990 edition lists pretty much everything I know of through AD 400, though only claiming completeness through AD 200, and also lists a few works from AD 400 to 600. And in that whole period, for the first half of the volume, I found only six writers who appeared even to have spent time in the region, and only two who actually wrote there—both of whose works survive only in fragments today. From other sources I know that there should be one complete work from the east in the second half of the volume (see note 47 above), but in general, the Greek of the eastern parts of Alexander's empire has not survived as literature. Inscriptions are a different story, but I haven't looked for them for this draft.
This Indic language was not written before the sixth century BC, and probably later than that; it is the language in which the Buddhists of Śri Lanka and much of Southeast Asia today have their holy books and some other books. It is fairly comprehensively catalogued; see: 1) von Hinüber 1996, which is meant to build on 2) Smith 1948 (a genuine if uninformative list of the primary texts), and see also 3) Banerji 1977. In addition there's some bibliographic guidance to be had from von Hinüber 1986; Jayawardhana 1994 and Norman 1983 provide a literary encyclopædia and a literary history respectively; and the language is covered in the EIL. "Pali" is essentially a literary language abstracted from the larger and less distinct mass of "Prakrit", on which see below; it therefore doesn't surprise me that no one (to my knowledge) has catalogued Pali inscriptions. Except for reading in Puri 1987 and Norman 1983, I have not attempted to find out whether any Pali writings claim, or can be shown, to have originated in the region covered by this chapter, for this draft; the idea is unlikely in principle (the school of Buddhism most closely identified with Pali was relatively unsuccessful in Central Asia), but not impossible.
"Prakrit" is the general name for Middle Indo-Aryan languages; sometimes "Apabhraṁśa" is used for the later stages of these. There are in fact several different attested "Prakrits", although I have not yet found a clear, concise explanation (of which language is which) that held up to later use. The Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit is the classical Jaina literary language, the language of the Jain scriptures. Prakrits are covered in the EIL. Banerji 1977 is the easiest work to find that lists surviving Prakrit writings, but seems incomplete and is hard to use. For whatever reason, von Hinüber 1986 is much harder to locate, but provides (pp. 25-56) a much clearer guide to the earlier stages (including the period covered by this chapter). On its authority I conclude that although Prakrits (collectively called "Gandharī" by modern scholars) were copiously written in this region and period, the only surviving texts are inscriptions (which I've ignored) and the third-century documents, irrelevant to my topic, translated in Burrow 1940—of which there are 760 in the book's 147 pages.
This Semitic language, originally a dialect of Aramaic, is still written in Syria, Iraq, and Turkey, which have always been its home territories, and Lebanon; it was first written in Turkey in the first century AD. For centuries, however, it was also written further east, at least as far as Xinjiang-Uigur (as well as southern India), as the liturgical and literary language of two major branches of Christianity, usually known as "Monophysite" and "Nestorian" in English. Syriac is covered by an excellent literary history (as well as several less excellent ones), and a stunning succession of bibliographies; for this draft of this chapter I've been able to mine the former, but not much the latter. See:
Baumstark 1922. While his bibliography of printed works is very good to his date, Baumstark also covers numerous works known only in manuscript in his day (and often still unpublished). The book thus deals with much material one could not otherwise learn of. Note however that many manuscripts are now known which Baumstark never knew of; there is a feeble ongoing project to catalogue many of these at the Arthur Vööbus collection of the Jesuit-Krauss-McCormick Library at the Lutheran School of Theology in Chicago.
Moss 1962. This is the fundamental bibliography of printed works up to 1960, though it was not written with completeness as a goal.
Ortiz de Urbina 1965. This is in Latin throughout, so I can't make much use of it, but it has full bibliographies updating Baumstark for most of the older texts, helping bridge the gap from Baumstark's attempted completeness to Brock's more restricted attempted completeness, since Moss was in fact simply cataloguing a single (though excellent) collection.
Brock 1996. This collects his bibliographies published in volumes of the periodical Parole de l'Orient (Kaslik, Lebanon), namely Brock 1973, Brock 1982, Brock 1987, and Brock 1992. I mention these because although many more libraries claim to have the collected volume than the issues of Parole, the collected volume is almost never on any of their shelves—it always seems to be either on order, or out on loan, for years on end—while the issues of Parole are non-circulating and so consistently available at the United Library in Evanston, Illinois, and presumably likewise at other libraries which subscribe to the journal. Note that Brock, the only significant bibliographer of pre-Mongol Syriac to work since Ortiz de Urbina, normally restricts his coverage considerably: he omits dissertations, writing in Arabic and Syriac, and reprints; over time he has become less willing to include writing about modern Syriac; and he does not claim complete coverage of work published in India.
Brock 1998a, which I have not yet been able to see (it's a long stupid story), but which is presumably on the same lines as the preceding.
Brock 1998b, Brock 1999, Brock 2000, and Brock 2001, shorter more or less annual book lists in the web journal Hugoye, which will presumably be eclipsed eventually by a full bibliography in Parole de l'Orient, though they will probably remain more accessible to many people! (By the way, Brock 2001 mentions a new English-language history of Syriac literature, which I've not yet seen.)
For this draft of this chapter: There are several surviving narratives written in the relevant region and period, even though in AD 525 Syriac was still mostly confined further north and west. Most, but not all, have been translated, though most, but not all, of these translations are into German. I've been able to get access to most, but again not all, of these translations. In all, a better record than most here listed...
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6 M — Religions
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This Tibetan language has normally been written in, well, Tibet, outside this chapter's region. The Tibetan kingdom did do a fair amount of conquering in the late first millennium AD, including areas of Xinjiang-Uigur (Beckwith 1987); the extent and significance of this military activity is controverted (Frye 1996: 239), and I don't know of any literary activity accompanying it, but I wouldn't be shocked if there were some. All of that said, I have not found anyone willing to claim that Tibetan was written before AD 600. Beyer 1992: 29-30 briefly lists the oldest sources, and says the language was written no later than the mid-eighth century. I've found nothing else that even resembles a systematic historical treatment. There is one systematic guide to Tibetan literature, Cabezón and Jackson 1996. It's a collection of essays about individual genres; few if any of the essays are historical in outline, but the ones I've looked at do include good bibliographic guides. That said, the books which Cabezón and Jackson recommend (p. 34, note 2) as literary histories are exceptionally useless, even as literary histories go, and I would not be particularly shocked if there were in fact some surviving text, mentioned by none of them, which I should have covered in this chapter. Kuløy and Imaeda 1986 is a bibliography of Tibetan, whose coverage reaches to 1975, which I stumbled on late in my research for this draft and did not attempt to use.
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This probably-Mongolian (Franke 1990: 407) language was the official one of the Liao or Khitan dynasty, which ruled from Manchuria an empire including parts of Mongolia from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Chinese histories say the Liao script was invented in AD 920. Some texts survive but were far from deciphered according to Grinstead 1972: 53-54. However, Sinor 1998: 232 offers a more hopeful account and points to a chapter in Asimov and Bosworth 2000 which may shed more light.
This Dardic language is still written in Kashmir, and doubtless in the Kashmiri diaspora. It is covered in EIL. When it was first written has been hard for me to find out. Kachru 1981 says that Kashmiri was written for the first time in the tenth century (p. 6), was written for the first time in the thirteenth century (p. 14), was written for the first time in the fourteenth century (p. 15), and was written for the first time in the fifteenth century (p. 14), an impressive but obviously impossible record of firsts. (Edelman 1965: 32 also seems to support the fourteenth century, but Edelman 1965: 33 does not.) Anyway, Kachru says (p. 6) that anything written in the tenth century should be in the Śāradā script. Kalla 1985: 24-30 bears the title "Sharada Inscriptions of Kashmir", text unattributed but translations of inscriptions by K. L. Kalla and Piaray Lal Razdan. Two of the inscriptions date to the reign of Dida Rani, circa AD 1000; all of the other dates named in the early parts of this book are much later. However, these pages also mention two hundred Śāradā inscriptions in Himachal Pradesh in India, on which I have no further information. Regardless, despite proximity, it would appear that no Kashmiri was written in either the time or the region of concern in this chapter.
This Tibetan language was written in the Hsi-Hsia empire of Ningxia-Huizu, Gansu, and nearby areas, beginning (according to Chinese histories) with the script's invention around AD 1036, and until the empire fell in the thirteenth century. There's quite a lot of surviving writing—even printing from the twelfth century (Kychanov 1998: 213)—and in the past three decades it has finally been deciphered, by and large. Pending access to Asimov and Bosworth 2000, I find some promising sounding items listed in Asimov and Bosworth 1998: 455-456 (see "Literature in Chinese"; some of the titles, so perhaps some of the books, are in fact in English).
This Tungusic language was that of the Jurchen or Chin empire of northern China in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and apparently some writing in it survives. There is a discussion of that literature in Jin 1995, and something of a list of published writings in Kiyose 1977: 23-32. Jin argues for the survival of songs dating to the eleventh century, I think.
This Indic language has been written in the Punjab (India and Pakistan) since the twelfth century, according to Smirnov 1975: 19-20.
This Indic language has been written in at least Rajasthan, India, since at least the twelfth century—Maheshwari 1980: 21 asserts that the local Apabhraṁśa became Rajasthani around AD 1050, but discusses no actual writings older than the following century. The language is covered in EIL.
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Samuel N. C. Lieu is directing the fitful compilation of a corpus of surviving Manichæan texts, Corpus Fontium Manichaeorum, which grew out of an electronic database, Database of Manichaean Texts. See Lieu 1999 for more information. Whatever the status of the project, Lieu 1998 is its catalogue, and so the primary bibliography of published Manichæan writings. It also includes some works by the religion's opponents, mainly those which quote otherwise lost Manichæan works. However, Lieu sometimes omits information included in Boyce 1960, even concerning published texts, and always omits those still-unpublished materials catalogued by Boyce, so her book isn't yet fully superseded. Boyce covers texts in Parthian, Middle or New Persian, Sogdian, and occasionally Turkish; Lieu adds texts in Syriac, Greek, Latin, Coptic, Chinese, Turkish (Uighur), and Arabic. There are also discursive accounts of the Middle Iranian survivals—Boyce 1968b and 1983b, and Asmussen 1988—although there is no literary history of Manichæism in general yet.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
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There were lots and lots of different beliefs in this region for this period; I'm not trying to list references on all of them, or be remotely exhaustive or definitive on the religions I do deal with. But the surviving texts tend to belong to the "major" religions, so I am listing at least beginning references on them. See also the general histories by country, below pp. 28-31; I list here only items in the CHI or in HCCA, but many of the other general histories have chapters on particular religions, or on religions in general, for their place and time.
There are plenty of disagreements in detail (see pretty much any of the books listed under general histories of Iran, below; or Bernstein 1998), but Boyce's incomplete history (1975, 1982; Boyce and Grenet 1991) holds the field. (There is an earlier book by her, at a considerably less scholarly level, which is routinely cited as providing a full history to the present; but since its title and date are different in every citation, and no book I've seen in actual libraries meets the description, I can't tell you more.) In HCCA see also Gignoux 1996; in the CHI, Duchesne-Guillemin 1983 and Yarshater 1983c.
Awkwardly, nobody has tried to replace Neusner 1965-1970, which Neusner himself has repudiated on sound methodological grounds (Neusner 1994: xxix-xxx), in English. Gafni 1986 and Oppenheimer 1983 are sometimes cited as such replacements, but only by people who reject Neusner's methodological concerns; in any event, I can't read the former, and the latter is a gazetteer, not a history. In the CHI see also Neusner 1983.
Probably the most readably organised discussion is that in the HCCA, Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya 1996; there is also a chapter in the CHI, Emmerick 1983b. But for sustained treatments you have to choose between two writers whose writings tend to be poorly organised enough to make using them difficult. B. A. Litvinsky is normally cited by most others (for example, most contributors to Litvinsky et alii 1996); this is partly no doubt because he's been writing longer. He covers Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan in Litvinsky 1968, of which Litvinsky 1979 is essentially one updated condensation (rarely cited) and the first chapter of Litvinsky 1999 another. He treats Xinjiang in the rest of Litvinsky 1999 (which shows signs of being better organised). His focus is usually on surviving buildings, monuments, etc., and their art and architecture (and this is prominent enough at the beginning of Litvinsky 1999 to have put me off reading further, but this turned out to be a mistake on my part). Puri 1987 is equally poorly organised, but Puri's particular focus is on written remains, which makes his book valuable to me. It isn't much cited, but this is probably because most discussions thus far published were first written before 1987; see for example Litvinsky et alii 1996: 13.
Puri discusses at some length writers of Sanskrit who came from, or lived in, Central Asia (usually Xinjiang). But none of these writers, except Litvinsky (1999: 40-41), deals with the possibility that some of the immense mass of pseudepigraphical Buddhist literature translated into Chinese derives from this region. General histories of Buddhism tend to take this for granted but provide no references (Skilton 1994: 162-163; Robinson et alii 1997: 168). Because of this lack of references until I finally could see Litvinsky 1999, and because Puri's named writers tend not to be translated, I've had trouble finding and reading these survivals; note 77 above shows what I was able to do for this draft.
Nobody writes on the obscure subject of eastern Christianity, in English, without a Christian commitment which seems to make for credulity. Probably the least credulous account is actually that by the Copt A. S. Atiya, Atiya 1967: 239-266. A more narrative version, full of drama, is Moffett 1998, mainly pp. 10-44, 70-167, 193-215, and 265-284. The endnotes to Gillman and Klimkeit 1999 (to the relevant pages, that is, pp. 77-84, 109-121, 205-216) offer (occasionally) more recent references but the volume is otherwise a great disappointment given Klimkeit's reputation. I haven't closely examined Le Coz 1995: 21-58, 67-96, 107-120, but it may well be better than what's available in English. In HCCA see also Litvinsky 1996b; in the CHI, Asmussen 1983.
For the religion's foundation and doctrine, Puech 1949, though now old in relation to the pace of publication of Manichæan writings, is invaluable for its rigorously supplied endnotes. Infuriatingly, Lieu 1985, the standard introduction in English, deals with Manichæism fully everywhere except this chapter's region, although this region is both where the religion was born and where it was most successful. (To be more precise, Lieu deals extensively with Iraq during Mani's lifetime, but portrays it, and the Sasanid empire generally, as essentially a suburb of Roman Syria; he relates what he can of Manichæism's subsequent history in Iraq, but saying that nobody has yet researched this in detail, he does not try to do so himself; and he just plain scants the copious information on Central Asia. I think much of this pattern derives from which languages he knows, so it's hard to blame him, but it's regrettable that nobody else has assumed the burden.) Lieu 1992, a second edition, does not appear to change the book's outline, and I'm not really sure what has changed; prefer it if you can find it, but it is not the standard introduction in English since very few libraries actually have copies. In HCCA, see Litvinsky 1996a; in the CHI, Widengren 1983.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
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(This approach is not quite as stupid as it sounds... Again, neither definitive nor exhaustive. I should note that where I occasionally complain about a book's age, it usually has to do primarily with problems with radiocarbon dating. Those regions documented mainly by classical Greek or Chinese texts could just as well have been written about in the nineteenth century. But the many for which archæology is very important have experienced extended confusion from first the lack of radiocarbon dating and then the inconsistent ways in which problems with it were handled.)
has a scantily documented history from about 800 BC, thanks to the Sabæan and other South Arabian inscriptions and occasional notices in other sources. The whole of this history is covered, in a very elementary and rather speculative way, in Salibi 1980. There is a somewhat more scholarly connected account of the first centuries in English, in Breton 1999, but from about the time of Christ one must either switch to French—Chelhod 1984 (the chapters on pre-Islamic religion are by Alfred F. L. Beeston and are in English)—or settle for encyclopædia entries from The Encyclopaedia of Islam (which are, anyway, the most scholarly items here mentioned): Beeston 1965, Beeston 1976, Beeston 1982, Beeston 1986, Beeston 1993, Müller 1989, Robin 1989, Robin 1998, Smith 1998.
is poorly covered in modern scholarship, unless The Encyclopaedia of Islam offers riches I haven't found (which is quite probable). Salibi 1980 covers the whole country and its whole history, for a general audience, again speculatively. Bosworth 1983 offers a more scholarly account. Eph`al 1984 deals with the north and northwest prior to the beginning of the period (his last references are to around 550 BC), and Millar 1993: 387-436 occasionally refers to the northwest between 31 BC and AD 337. For the Eastern Province see below.
have a history known from very scanty northern sources, for the periods 2300-2000 BC and 640 BC on. Again Salibi 1980 introduces the whole history (and again, his ideas are attractive but not necessarily reliable). For the period up to 323 BC, Rice 1994: 238-263 is a well written though not chronologically clear introduction to the archæology. Potts 1990a and 1990b provides a detailed review of the archæology and the textual references, up to AD 676.
is barely mentioned in Greek sources, and otherwise seems to leave no textual (and few archæological) remains from this period or many years earlier (see for example Rice 1994: 228-238), except for Syriac church records, which say a thriving community existed from the mid-fourth century AD, producing at least one author of a surviving pre-Islamic work (Potts 1990b: 244-246; Baumstark 1922: 132). I have no idea how to reconcile these facts. Even Salibi 1980 ignores this area until the eighteenth century AD.
history begins with plentiful cuneiform references from perhaps 2300 BC (Potts 1990a: 181ff.) to 1225 BC, and fewer, in various languages, from 710 BC on. There appear to be no native sources in this chapter's period. Bahrein's archæology is, however, the most intensely studied in the Gulf area, and Rice 1994 is largely about the island, especially pp. 141-202 and 276-299. There is also considerable material about it in Potts 1990a and Potts 1990b. Salibi 1980 offers little.
is documented in cuneiform references beginning around 3000 BC (per, controversially, Potts 1990a: 86) but either ending or being subsumed among references to Bahrein around 2300 BC; records resume (in outside Greek literature and native Aramaic and Arabic coins and inscriptions) from the fourth century BC. Again one can see Salibi 1980 for a (spotty) introduction, Rice 1994: 214-228 for a more focused introduction (here going past 323 BC), or Potts 1990a and 1990b for full details.
is little explored archæologically. But from the Kuwaiti island of Failaka there are lots of cuneiform documents, from about 2000 to 1200 BC, and inscriptions in various languages from about 600 BC to at least 200 BC. On this Rice 1994: 207-213 is actually clearer than the (more detailed) discussions in Potts 1990a and 1990b. (Salibi 1980 again ignores the area until the eighteenth century.)
is of course documented from the beginning of documents, but its history during this period is actually relatively hard to study. The only connected account I know of is Widengren 1966, which is neither adequately referenced nor particularly detailed. Morony 1984 is not narrative, but his topic (despite his title) is in fact Iraq from about AD 475 to 750. Since Babylonia was crucial to each of the successive empires of Iran, the major books on those empires deal with that part of Iraq; note particularly Briant 1996 and Dandamaev 1989 (both passim), Sherwin-White and Kuhrt 1993 (especially pp. 149-161), and Frye 1984: 275-282 (on the Parthian era), as well as, from the CHI, Oppenheim 1985 and (less useful) Eilers 1983. Oates 1968: 58-121 (largely devoted to reporting archæological results at specific sites) portrays the north (Assyria) as something like a nuclear wasteland for most of this period; Goossens 1952: 91-100 is a much more generally informative and less pessimistic, though still older, treatment. I have found no more recent works on Assyria. Bosworth 1983 covers the southwestern Arabs for most of this chapter's period (as does, doubtless, the Encyclopaedia of Islam). In addition, Christensen 1993: 49-81 is a valuable study of the underlying economy in Babylonia and points south and east of it. Oelsner 1986: 70-136 summarises archæological results at the older cities of Babylonia from 331 BC to around AD 220. Millar 1993: 437-488 occasionally refers to the far northwest under Rome, until AD 337, while pp. 495-503 summarise a broader area and were much help.
has a history scantily documented by cuneiform records (Sumerian, Akkadian and Elamite) from very early times, and then somewhat better documented by records in many languages beginning around 700 BC. Richard Frye has written two books on it: Frye 1984 is a very scholarly survey, mainly concerned with political history, of the period down to the Muslim conquest, AD 651, while Frye 1963 is a rather wider and more readable account and has become the standard introduction. Wiesehöfer 1996 lies in between these two; in particular, like Frye 1984, it provides very detailed bibliographic essays (and the two overlap surprisingly little); unlike that book, it offers very little narrative political history. Christensen 1993: 105-186, 193-197, 200-243 again studies the underlying economy. Beyond these books, others tend to be organised by dynasty.
From about 550 BC to 330 BC, the Achæmenid dynasty of Persis ruled the area now called Iran. Dandamayev 1994 (HCCA) is a good introduction, from a perspective useful for this chapter; for a book-length discussion of the Achæmenids and Central Asia, see Vogelsang 1992. The major surveys in English are Cook 1983, which is topically broad and relatively introductory, and which focuses heavily on Persian-Greek relations (as does the surviving literary evidence); and Dandamaev 1989, strictly political history, somewhat more scholarly, and rather less one-sided. But the current standard handbook, the most scholarly and the broadest of these, is Briant 1996. Gershevitch 1985 (the relevant volume of the CHI) has long essays on a number of topics but does not attempt full coverage.
Following the reign of Alexander the Great (331 to 323 BC) and a period of warfare, the Seleucid dynasty of Antioch ruled (today's) Iran from about 305 BC to no later than 128 BC. The Seleucids tend to get short shrift in books on Iran (except Frye 1984), as does Iran in books on Hellenistic history, but a recent monograph, Sherwin-White and Kuhrt 1993, has become the standard handbook. Yarshater 1983a and 1983b (CHI) are also sometimes useful.
The Arsacid dynasty of Parthia governed parts of today's Iran beginning from 238 BC, and the whole (in some sense of "governed"), from about 140 BC, to perhaps AD 228. This period is exceptionally poorly documented. Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994 (HCCA) is a brief introduction from the Central Asian point of view; the modern handbooks are Schippmann 1980 (broad in topics) and Wolski 1993 (narrowly political, but Wolski is universally recognised as the foremost expert on the Arsacids). Yarshater 1983a and 1983b are, again, sometimes useful.
Finally, the Sasanid dynasty of Persis ruled Iran from perhaps AD 224 to shortly after AD 641. They are not only the longest-lasting but the best documented of these dynasties, and the strongest rulers too; they are the real stars of Yarshater 1983a and 1983b. The standard monograph is Christensen 1944; this can be updated (and, I think, broadened) by reference to Schippmann 1990.
All of the remaining countries in the chapter's region are covered in HCCA, except for Siberia. Several are also treated (lightly, for some periods) in Wiesehöfer 1996, and (deeply) in Frye 1984. Also, all of the remaining countries of this chapter's region are covered in Hambly et alii 1966, except for Afghanistan and Siberia. The chapters of that book concerning this chapter's period, by David Bivar, are somewhat scattershot and are heavily weighted towards the southwestern part of the book's remit, but the rest of the book forms an excellent introduction to the entire covered area's later history.
entered history with the Achæmenids and later belonged in whole or in part to the Seleucids, Kushans (whose empire centred on it), Arsacids, Sasanids and Hephthalites; although many of these periods are poorly documented, none are entirely unknown. Besides HCCA and Frye 1984, the main reference is Allchin and Hammond 1978; the chapters on the period relevant here are both by D. W. Mac Dowall and M. Taddei, and both include summaries of "historical background" (very brief), epigraphy, and numismatics, before going on to nuts and bolts archæology. The country is covered in the Achæmenid handbook, Briant 1996 (thinly passim); the succeeding Greek period in northern Afghanistan, down to about 130 BC, is Holt 1999's topic, while Sherwin-White and Kuhrt 1993: 79-81 and 101-113 discusses the same period for more of the country. Bivar 1983 (CHI) reaches from about 330 BC to about AD 550. And Christensen 1993: 197-200, 221-243 studies the underlying economy of western Afghanistan. Note that half of Bactria (below) was in Afghanistan.
which also entered history with the Achæmenids and was held by Seleucids, Arsacids and Sasanids, figures prominently in Frye 1996 and lightly in Bivar 1983 and Sherwin-White and Kuhrt 1993, its then-main city's economy is treated in detail in Christensen 1993: 187-193, and it appears in the standard references (Hambly et alii 1966, Frye 1984, HCCA). Nomads are discussed in Abetekov and Yusupov 1994. Note that some of Khwarizm and a little of Bactria (below) were in Turkmenistan.
The area where Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and the southern parts of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan come together in a jumble is too densely covered to make sense of splitting the references by country, so instead here is a survey by ancient regions. These regions are all cursorily covered for this period, and well covered for later ones, by Hambly et alii 1966; all figure prominently in Frye 1996, although that was originally meant to be a history of Tajikistan alone and it sometimes shows, and the Achæmenid ones also appear in Frye 1984. Zeimal 1983 deals to some extent with all of them for the CHI. Mukhamedjanov 1994 deals with each from an economic perspective.
which lay on the east side of the Aral Sea and along the Amu Darya and Syr Darya nearby, is now split among Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. It was an Achæmenid satrapy and so enters history in the usual sources on that empire; it isn't clear whether it ever belonged to the Kushans or the Sasanids. It is well covered by Negmatov 1994 and Nerazik 1996 for HCCA.
which lay on both sides of the Amu Darya, is now split among Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. It also enters history as an Achæmenid territory, and unlike most of these regions it belonged to a number of the later empires prominent in Central Asian history (Seleucid, Kusana, Sasanid, Hephthalite). It is the subject of Holt 1999, figures largely in Sherwin-White and Kuhrt 1993: 101-113 (but note that they define Bactria as confined to the Afghanistan portion south of the Amu Darya, calling the rest Sogdiana), and is so much the central topic of HCCA that it's pointless to enumerate the relevant chapters. In CHI see Bivar 1983 besides Zeimal 1983.
which occupied the Zerafshan and Kashka Darya valleys mainly in Uzbekistan, may be included in Sherwin-White and Kuhrt 1993's Sogdiana; I'm not sure and I think they aren't either. In HCCA, see Negmatov 1994 (cursory) and Marshak 1996, and also look at the chapters that deal with Bactria. The Achæmenids presumably claimed it, the Seleucids may have, and the Kushans and Sasanids at least invaded; at the end of this period the Hephthalites took it.
which lay along the south of the Syr Darya in modern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan along with perhaps a smidgen of Kyrgyzstan, is well covered in Negmatov 1994 and Negmatov 1996: 257-273 for HCCA. It was also Achæmenid territory first documented in that empire's inscriptions, and later may have belonged to the Seleucids and to Ta-yüan.
which lay along both sides of the Syr Darya west of Khojand, is now mostly in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan although from a quick glance at a map you'd expect most of it to be in Kyrgyzstan. In this period, probably some of Kyrgyzstan really was claimed by it, but not very much. It appears prominently in Negmatov 1994 and Negmatov 1996: 274-277. It did not belong to the Achæmenids and is first known to history from Chinese records of the second century BC, as Ta-yüan.
which was essentially the region near Tashkent in modern Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and perhaps Tajikistan, north of the Syr Darya, gets light attention in Negmatov 1994 and more in Zadneprovskiy 1994: 463-464 and in Negmatov 1996: 277-280. It enters history as the centre of K'ang-chü, a nomad state in Chinese records of the second century BC to the fifth century AD.
is much neglected. Neither Frye 1996, nor Hambly et alii 1966, nor any number of other books and web sites I tried, say anything significant about this territory-as opposed to the Kirghiz people, who lived elsewhere-before the 19th (!) century. But there are isolated references scattered through HCCA: Harmatta et alii 1994: 175 and in particular Harmatta 1994: 417-421 and Zadneprovskiy 1994: 458-463, 469-470; Litvinsky et alii 1996: 31 and in particular Marshak 1996: 236, Litvinsky 1996b: 425 and Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya 1996: 437.
is also poorly covered but, being so much bigger, gets more of the random attention. In HCCA, Abetnekov and Yusupov 1994, Zadneprovskiy 1994 (mainly pp. 465-469) and Kyzlasov 1996 cover some archæology of this period, but more Chinese textual records starting in the second century BC; there are occasional glancing references elsewhere. There are also a very few references, less current but more archæologically concerned, in Raschke 1978, on which see below under Siberia. For later periods, see HCCA or Hambly et alii 1966.
is much better recorded, starting from the second century BC in Chinese sources. The major empires to which it belonged include the Hsiung-nu, the Han, and the Hephthalite. Samolin 1964 works from Chinese sources alone, Emmerick 1983a mainly from Iranian ones. In chronological order, 1) Ma and Wang 1994, 2) Ma and Sun 1994, and 3) from south to north Zhang 1996a, Zhang 1996b, and Kyzlasov 1996, cover the region for HCCA, for this chapter's period, all with a definite tilt toward Chinese sources (but not as bad as Samolin's). For later periods, see HCCA and Hambly et alii 1966. Raschke 1978 is again also helpful (here, but not for the other regions mentioned, beyond page 622 of his text).
is known from archæology and from Chinese records beginning in the second century BC. See Ishjamts 1994 and Kyzlasov 1996 (both HCCA); for more on archæology see Raschke 1978 or Masson 1996; for far greater detail on the historical side, see Barfield 1989; for later periods, see HCCA, Barfield, or Hambly et alii 1966.
is first recorded in Chinese sources of perhaps the second century BC. Kyzlasov 1996 touches on parts of it in HCCA. Okladnikov 1956 introduces its archæology comprehensively (though oddities of organisation make the work appear more selective) and is just speculative enough to breathe life into the narrative; the rest of Levin and Potapov 1956 is generally unhelpful for this period but useful for later times (faute de mieux, as noted above under the language Khakas). Much though not all of Siberia for this period is covered in a slightly more recent set of regional studies I found only while formatting the chapter, alas: Okladnikov 1959 and 1970, and Chernetsov and Koszyńska 1969. (The main region omitted is the Altai; since the southern Altai is a region of sustained archæological interest, it's unfortunate that Gryaznov 1969, the main treatment in English, stops around the time of Christ and is also much less scholarly in presentation. I have very little doubt that there are more recent and more comprehensive works in Russian; Okladnikov published dozens of later works, for example.) Raschke 1978 discusses Siberia (along with the last several regions mentioned) in a section largely devoted to nomadism (pp. 606-622, with endnotes pp. 681-719), and unlike Okladnikov refers specifically to site reports for each site he mentions. (In fact, in the course of his, um, article, Raschke discusses pretty much every region I've dealt with above, at greater or less length, with detailed references.) Finally, at the other extreme, Masson 1996 provides a very brief sketch for the bulk of this chapter's period.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Abetekov, A., and H. Yusupov. 1994. "Ancient Iranian nomads in western Central Asia". Chapter 1, pp. 23-33, of Harmatta et alii 1994 (bibliography pp. 513-516).
Akiner, Shirin, and Nicholas Sims-Williams, ed's. 1997. Languages and Scripts of Central Asia. [London]: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1997.
Allchin, F. R., and Norman Hammond, ed's. 1978. The Archaeology of Afghanistan from earliest times to the Timurid period. London [etc.]: Academic Press, 1978.
Anonymous. 1964. «Annexe I: La littérature kirghiz». Pp. 760-761 of Bazin et alii 1964.
Asimov, M. S., and C. E. Bosworth, ed's. 1998. The historical, social and economic setting. Part One of Volume IV, The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century, of HCCA. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, [1998].
See HCCA for information on finding this book in libraries.
*Asimov, M. S., and C. E. Bosworth, ed's. 2000. The achievements. Part Two of Volume IV, The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century, of HCCA. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, [2000].
See HCCA for information on finding this book in libraries (if any of them ever actually get around to shelving it anyway).
Asmussen, J. P. 1983. "Christians in Iran". Chapter 25, pp. 924-948, of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1355-1357).
Asmussen, Jes P. 1988. "Manichaean Literature". Chapter 3, pp. 57-71, of Yarshater 1988.
Atiya, Aziz S. 1967. History of Eastern Christianity. [London: Methuen and Co. Ltd, 1967]. Consulted in an edition published Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, [1968].
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Bailey, H. W. 1983. "Khotanese Saka Literature". Chapter 34 and pp. 1230-1243 of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1393-1395).
Baluch, Muhammad Sardar Khan. 1977. The Classical Period (1450-1650 A.D.). Volume I of his Literary History of the Baluchis. Quetta: Chairman Baluchi Academy, [1977].
Banerji, Sures Chandra. 1977. A Companion to Middle Indo-Aryan Literature. Calcutta: Firma KLM (Private) Ltd., 1977.
Banerji, Sures Chandra. 1989. A Companion to Sanskrit Literature. Spanning a period of over three thousand years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, legends and several appendices. Delhi [etc.]: Motilal Banarsidass, [1971], 2nd ed. [1989].
Barfield, Thomas J. 1989. The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China. A volume in Studies in Social Discontinuity, ed. Charles Tilly. [Cambridge, MA/Oxford]: Basil Blackwell, [1989].
Bátori, István. 1969. Wortzusammensetzung und Stammformverbindung im Syrjänischen mit Berücksichtigung des Wotjakischen. XVII in Ural-Altaische Bibliothek, Fortsetzung der »Ungarischen Bibliothek«, herausgegeben von Omeljan Pritsak und Wolfgang Schlachter. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1969
Baumstark, Anton. 1922. Geschichte der Syrischen Literatur mit Ausschluß der christlich-palästinensischen Texte. Bonn: A. Marcus und E. Webers Verlag Dr. jur. Albert Ahn, 1922. (Reprint Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1968.)
Bazin, Louis. 1964. «La littérature epigraphique turque ancienne». Pp. 192-211 of Bazin et alii 1964.
Bazin, Louis, Alessio Bombaci, Jean Deny, Tayyib Gökbilgin, Fahir İz, and Helmuth Scheel, ed's. 1964. Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta, tomum secundum. Aquis Mattiacis [=Wiesbaden]: Franciscum Steiner [=Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH], 1964.
Beckwith, Christopher I. 1987. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press, c 1987. Apparently a 1993 second edition exists, though I haven't seen it.
Beeston, A. F. L. 1965. "Ḥaḍramawt". Pp. 51-53 of volume III, H-Iram, of The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, ed. B. Lewis, V. L. Ménage, Ch. Pellat and J. Schacht .... Leiden: E. J. Brill/London: Luzac & Co., 1971, but this fascicule dates to 1965 per copyright page.
Beeston, A. F. L. 1976. "Ḳatabān". Pp. 746-748 of volume IV, Iran-Kha, of The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, ed. (with respect to these pages) C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis, and Ch. Pellat .... Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978, but this fascicule dates to 1976 per copyright page.
Beeston, A. F. L. 1982. "i. Pre-Islamic Period". Pp. 336-337 of "Ḥaḍramawt" by A. F. L. Beeston, G. R. Smith, and T. M. Johnstone. Pp. 336-340 of fascicules 5-6, D̲j̲awhar-alʿIrāḳī, of Supplement to The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, ed. C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis, and Ch. Pellat .... Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1982.
Beeston, A. F. L. 1984. Sabaic Grammar. Journal of Semitic Studies Monograph No. 6. [?Manchester]: Journal of Semitic Studies, University of Manchester, 1984.
Beeston, A. F. L. 1986. "Maʿin". P. 88 of volume VI, Mahk-Mid, of The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, ed. (with respect to this page) C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis, and Ch. Pellat .... Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991, but this fascicule dates to 1986 per copyright page.
Beeston, A. F. L. 1993. "Sabaʾ". Pp. 663-665 of volume VIII, Nedīm-[Samūm], of The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, ed. C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs and G. Lecoq .... Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993.
Beeston, A. F. L., T. M. Johnstone, R. B. Serjeant, and G. R. Smith, ed's. 1983. Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period. A volume in The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature, edited by Professor A. F. L. Beeston, Professor T. M. Johnstone, Professor J. D. Latham, Professor R. B. Serjeant, and Dr. G. R. Smith (and one wonders how many ink trees died to reprint all those names with titles added). Cambridge [et many cetera]: Cambridge University Press, c 1983.
Benzing, Johannes. 1964a. Die türkmenische Literatur. Pp. 721-741 of Bazin et alii 1964.
Benzing, Johannes. 1964b. Die usbekische und neu-uigurische Literatur. Pp. 700-720 of Bazin et alii 1964.
Berkowitz, Luci, and Karl A. Squitier with technical assistance from William A. Johnson. 1990. Thesaurus Linguae Graecae. Canon of Greek Authors and Works. 3rd edition. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Previous editions, not from Oxford, 1977 and 1986.
Bernstein, Joe. 1998. Usenet post with the following headers:
Subject: Date of Zarathustra (was Re: Religions of ainchent Persia...)
Date: Fri, 1 May 1998 12:22:24 -0500 (CDT)
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Beyer, Klaus. 1986. The Aramaic Language. Its Distribution and Subdivisions. Translated by John F. Healey and updated by Beyer from Die Verbreitung und Gliederung des Aramäischen, pp. 23-76 of Die aramäischen Texte vom Toten Meer samt den Inschriften aus Palästina [...] (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, [1986].
Beyer, Stephan V. 1992. The Classical Tibetan Language. A volume in SUNY Series in Buddhist Studies ed. Matthew Kapstein. [Albany]: State University of New York Press, c 1992.
Bishop, Dale. 1988. "Literary Aspects of the Avesta". Chapter 2, pp. 41-56, of Yarshater 1988.
Bivar, A. D. H. 1983. "The History of Eastern Iran". Chapter 5, pp. 181-217 (with appendices pp. 218-231) of Yarshater 1983a (bibliography Yarshater 1983b: 1295-1297).
Bombaci, Alessio. 1969. La letteratura turca con un profilo della letteratura mongola. 1st ed., details unavailable to me, Milan 1956; 2nd ed., as Storia della letterature turca, a volume in Storia della letterature di tutto il mondo dir. Antonio Viscardi, [Milano]: Nuova Accademia Editrice, c 1962; 3rd ed. [Firenze]: [G.C.] Sansoni / [Milano]: [Edizioni] Accademia, c 1969.
Borger, Rykle. 1967. Repertorium der sumerischen und akkadischen Texte. Band I of his Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co, 1967.
Borger, Rykle. 1975a. Supplement zu Band I. Anhang: Zur Kuyunjik-Sammlung. Band II of his Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1975.
Borger, Rykle. 1975b. Inhaltliche Ordnung der sumerischen und akkadischen Texte. Anhang: Sekundärliteratur in Auswahl. Band III of his Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1975.
Bosworth, C. E. 1983. "Iran and the Arabs before Islam". Chapter 16, pp. 595-612, of Yarshater 1983a (bibliography Yarshater 1983b: 1322-1323).
Boyce, Mary. 1960. A Catalogue of the Iranian Manuscripts in Manichean Script in the German Turfan Collection. Veröffentlichung nr. 45, Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Institut für Orientforschung. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1960.
Boyce, Mary. 1968a. "Middle Persian Literature". Pp. 31-66 of Lieferung 1 of Literatur, zweiter Abschnitt of Iranistik, vierter Band of Der nähe und der mittlere Osten, herausgegeben von B. Spuler, erste Abteilung of Handbuch der Orientalistik, herausgegeben von B. Spuler unter Mitarbeit von H. Franke, J. Gonda, H. Hammitzsch, W. Helck, J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw und F. Vos. (= HdO 1.4.2.1) Leiden/Köln: E. J. Brill, 1968.
Boyce, Mary. 1968b. "The Manichaean Literature in Middle Iranian". Pp. 67-76 of Lieferung 1 of Literatur, zweiter Abschnitt of Iranistik, vierter Band of Der nähe und der mittlere Osten, herausgegeben von B. Spuler, erste Abteilung of Handbuch der Orientalistik, herausgegeben von B. Spuler unter Mitarbeit von H. Franke, J. Gonda, H. Hammitzsch, W. Helck, J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw und F. Vos. (= HdO 1.4.2.1) Leiden/Köln: E. J. Brill, 1968.
Boyce, Mary. 1975. The Early Period. Volume One of her A History of Zoroastrianism. Heft 2A of Lieferung 2 of Religionsgeschichte des alten Orients, erster Abschnitt of Religion, achter Band of Der nähe und der mittlere Osten, herausgegeben von B. Spuler, erste Abteilung of Handbuch der Orientalistik, herausgegeben von B. Spuler unter Mitarbeit von H. Franke, J. Gonda, H. Hammitzsch, W. Helck, J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw und F. Vos. (=HdO 1.8.1.2.2A) Leiden/Köln: E. J. Brill, 1975.
Boyce, Mary. 1982. Under the Achaemenians. Volume Two of her A History of Zoroastrianism. Heft 2A of Lieferung 2 of Religionsgeschichte des alten Orients, erster Abschnitt of Religion, achter Band of Der nähe und der mittlere Osten, herausgegeben von B. Spuler, erste Abteilung of Handbuch der Orientalistik, herausgegeben von B. Spuler unter Mitarbeit von H. Franke, J. Gonda, H. Hammitzsch, W. Helck, B. Hrouda, H. Kähler, J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw und F. Vos. (= HdO 1.8.1.2.2A) Leiden/Köln: E. J. Brill, 1982.
Boyce, Mary. 1983a. "Parthian Writings and Literature". Chapter 31, pp. 1151-1165, of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1379-1384).
Boyce, Mary. 1983b. "Manichaean Middle Persian Writings". Chapter 32(b), pp. 1196-1204, of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1379-1384).
Boyce, Mary, and Frantz Grenet, with Roger Beck. 1991. Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman Rule. Volume 3 of her A History of Zoroastrianism. Heft 2 of Lieferung 2 of Religionsgechichte des alten Orients, erster Abschnitt of Religion, achter Band of Der nähe und der mittlere Osten, herausgegeben von B. Spuler, erste Abteilung of Handbuch der Orientalistik, herausgegeben von B. Spuler unter Mitarbeit von C. van Dijk, H. Franke, J. Gonda, H. Hammitzsch, W. Helck, B. Hrouda, D. Sinor, J. Stargardt und F. Vos. (= HdO 1.8.1.2.2) Leiden [etc.]: E. J. Brill, 1991.
Breton, Jean-François. 1999. Arabia Felix from the Time of the Queen of Sheba: Eighth Century B.C. to First Century A.D. Translated by Albert LaFarge from L'Arabie heureuse au temps de la reine de Saba: Viiie-Ier siècles avant J.-C. (Paris: Hachette Littératures, 1998). Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, c 1999.
Briant, Pierre. 1996. Histoire de l'empire perse de Cyrus à Alexandre. = Achaemenid History X, ed. Pierre Briant, Amélie Kuhrt, Margaret C. Root, Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Josef Wiesehöfer. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, c 1996.
This book, in two volumes as it happens, appears to be volume X in a series called Achaemenid History, with the title given above, but in fact the volumes in this series are routinely referenced in scholarly literature as being titled Achaemenid History [n], and for all I know there are libraries that catalogue them that way. In fairness I should note that all of the preceding ones are collections of papers whose proper titles are intrinsically less informative anyway.
To make matters more entertaining, there is also a one-volume edition, [Paris]: Fayard, c 1996. At least one library which owns the two-volume edition has nevertheless catalogued it as this one-volume edition.
Various library catalogues allege that an English translation with the title reversed—From Cyrus to Alexander: a history of the Persian Empire—has been published by Eisenbrauns in Winona Lake, Ind. Two catalogues managed between them to indicate three publication dates (1998, 1999, and 2000), but I assume the book will actually be available to declare its publication date for itself before the three become thirty.
While I'm on the subject of the Achaemenid History volumes, I should note that several contain papers by A. Kuhrt, papers with titles that imply they survey the cuneiform materials of Achæmenid times. Most of these do no more than sample those materials in an ongoing effort to persuade people that the cuneiform should be studied, but I haven't been able to consult the paper in Achaemenid History I. So that one might conceivably, then, be the work mentioned way above under Akkadian as desperately sought after.
Brock, S. P. 1973. "Syriac Studies 1960-1970: A classified bibliography". In Parole de l'Orient 4: 393-465, 1973.
Brock, S. P. 1982. "Syriac Studies 1971-1980: A classified bibliography". In Parole de l'Orient 10: 291-412, 1981/82.
Brock, S. P. 1987. "Syriac Studies 1981-1985: A classified bibliography". In Parole de l'Orient 14: 289-360, 1987.
Brock, S. P. 1992. "Syriac Studies 1986-1990: A classified bibliography". In Parole de l'Orient 17: 211-301, 1992.
Brock, Sebastian P. 1996. Syriac Studies: a Classified Bibliography (1960-1990). Kaslik, Liban [Lebanon]: Parole de l'Orient, 1996.
*Brock, S. P. 1998a. "Syriac Studies 1991-1995: A classified bibliography". In Parole de l'Orient 23: 241-350, 1998.
Brock, Sebastian. 1998b. "Some Recent Books on Syriac Topics (1996-1997)". In Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies, Volume 1, Number 1, January 1998. <http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol1No1/SyrBiblio9697.html>.
Brock, Sebastian. 1999. "Recent Books on Syriac Topics (1997-1998)". In Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies, Volume 2, Number 1, January 1999. <http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol2No1/HV2N1PRBrock.html>.
Brock, Sebastian. 2000. "Recent Books on Syriac Topics (1997-1999)". In Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies, Volume 3, Number 1, January 2000. <http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol3No1/HV3N1PRBrock.html>.
Brock, Sebastian. 2001. "Recent Books on Syriac Topics (1997-2000)". In Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies, Volume 4, Number 1, January 2001. <http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol4No1/HV4N1PRBrock.html>.
Brooks, E. Bruce. 1998. Mailing list post with the following headers:
Subject: Re: Questions on Han-or-earlier texts
Date: Sun, 22 Nov 1998 13:32:17 -0500
To: eaan@ccat.sas.upenn.edu
Message-Id: <0F2U00H305YON1@pobox1.oit.umass.edu>.
It is not clear to me that there is a public archive of this mailing list at this time.
Burrow, T. 1940. A Translation of the Kharoṣṭhi Documents from Chinese Turkestan. James G. Forlong Fund vol. XX. London: The Royal Asiatic Society, 1940.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Cabezón, José Ignacio, and Roger R. Jackson, ed's. 1996. Tibetan Literature: Studies in Genre. Essays in Honor of Geshe Lhundup Sopa. A volume in Studies in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism ed. Anne Klein, Karen Lang and John Strong. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion, [1996].
Caferoǧlu, Ahmet. 1964a. «La littérature turque de l'époque des Karakhanides». Pp. 267-275 of Bazin et alii 1964.
Caferoǧlu, Ahmet. 1964b. Die aserbeidschanische Literatur. Pp. 635-699 of Bazin et alii 1964.
Campbell, George L. 1991. Compendium of the World's Languages. London and New York: Routledge, [1991].
Canevascini, Giotto. 1993. The Khotanese Saṅghāṭasūtra. A critical edition. Band 14 of Beiträge zur Iranistik herausgegeben von Georges Redard. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1993.
Chaliand, Gerard, ed. 1993. A People without a Country. The Kurds and Kurdistan. Translated by Michael Pallis from Les Kurdes et le Kurdistan (Paris: F. Maspero, 1978). First edition London: Zed, 1980; revised edition New York: Olive Branch, 1993.
Charlesworth, James H., ed. 1983-1985. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1983, 1985 [two volumes].
Chelhod, Joseph, ed. 1984. «L'Arabie du Sud avant l'Islam». Troisième partie, pp. 193-278, of Le Peuple yéménite et ses racines. Tome I of L'Arabie du Sud, histoire et civilisation. Volume 21 of Islam d'hier et d'aujourd'hui, ed. A. M. Turki. Paris: Editions G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1984.
Chernetsov, V. N., and W. Moszyńska. 1969. Prehistory of Western Siberia. Ed. Henry N. Michael. [Trans. David Kraus, Penelope Rainey, and Ethel and Stephen Dunn from various articles published from 1953 to 1965, and revised by the authors in 1968 and 1969; preface dated 1969 pp. xix-xxv.] Number 9 of Anthropology of the North: Translations from Russian Sources, Arctic Institute of North America, ed. Henry N. Michael. Montreal and London: Arctic Institute of North America [and/or/?] McGill-Queen's University Press, 1974.
CHI = The Cambridge History of Iran. Volumes referred to here include Frye 1975, Yarshater 1983a and 1983b, and Gershevitch 1985, which see.
Christensen, Arthur. 1944. L'Iran sous les Sassanides. Deuxième édition. Copenhague: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1944. Reprinted Osnabrück: Otto Zeller, 1971.
Christensen, Peter. 1993. The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500. Translated [somewhat carelessly] by Steven Sampson. [Odense]: Museum Tusculanum Press, University of Copenhagen, 1993.
Cook, J. M. 1983. The Persian Empire. London: J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1983.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c
d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Dandamaev, M. A. 1989. A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Translated by W. J. Vogelsang from Politicheskaia istoriia Akhemenidskoi derzhavy (Moskva: Izd-vo "Nauka", Glav. red. vostochnoi lit-ry, 1985). Leiden etc.: E. J. Brill, 1989.
Dandamayev, M. A. 1994. "Media and Achaemenid Iran". Chapter 2, pp. 35-65, of Harmatta et alii 1994 (bibliography pp. 516-517).
Dani, A. H., and V. M. Masson, ed's. 1992. The dawn of civilization: earliest times to 700 B.C. Volume I of HCCA. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, [1992].
Dasgupta, S. N.[, and S. K. De]. 1962. A History of Sanskrit Literature: Classical Period, volume I, 2nd ed. [Calcutta]: University of Calcutta, 1962.
Perhaps De published a book in 1946 on kāvya (= belles lettres, roughly, mainly poetry); this book may or may not have had the same title. The 1962 volume surrounds De's work with a long introduction, an appendix, and an additional section on alaṁkāra (= rhetoric, roughly), about as long as the kāvya section. No second volume has been published to my knowledge.
Dhirasekera, Jotiya, editor in chief. 1979. Causality - Cittavisuddhi. Volume IV, fascicle 1, of Encyclopaedia of Buddhism. [Colombo?]: The Government of Sri Lanka, 1979.
Dresden, Mark. 1983. "Sogdian Language and Literature". Chapter 33 and pp. 1216-1229 of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1391-1393).
Duchesne-Guillemin, J. 1983. "Zoroastrian Religion". Chapter 23, pp. 866-906 (appendix 907-908) of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 908, 1351-1354).
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Edelman, D. I. 1965. The Dardic and Nuristani Languages. Translated by E. H. Taipan and edited by N. A. Dvoryankov from Dardskie yaz'ki (Moscow: same publisher, 1965). A volume in Languages of Asia and Africa. Moscow: Nauka Publishing House, Central Department of Oriental Literature, 1983.
EIL = Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature. Edited by Amaresh Datta (volumes I-III, c 1987, c 1988, c 1989), Mohan Lal (volumes IV-V, c 1991, c 1992), and Param Abichandani & K. C. Dutt (volume VI: "Supplementary Entries and Index", c 1994)—all New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.
Eilers, Wilhelm. 1983. "Iran and Mesopotamia". Chapter 11, pp. 481-504, of Yarshater 1983a (bibliography Yarshater 1983b: 1308-1310).
Emmerick, R. E. 1983a. "Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs". Chapter 7, pp. 263-275, of Yarshater 1983a (bibliography Yarshater 1983b: 1297-1298).
Emmerick, R. E. 1983b. "Buddhism among Iranian Peoples". Chapter 26, pp. 949-964, of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1357-1360).
Emmerick, Ronald E. 1985. The Tumshuqese Karmavācana Text. No. 2, Jahrgang 1985, of Abhandlungen der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur. Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur / Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GmbH; 1985.
Emmerick, R. E. 1989. "Khotanese and Tumshuqese". Section 3.2.3, pp. 204-229, of Schmitt 1989b.
Emmerick, Ronald E. 1992. A Guide to the Literature of Khotan. Second Edition Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. Studia Philologica Buddhica, Occasional Paper Series III. Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 1992. (First edition 1979.)
Eph`al, Israel. 1984. The Ancient Arabs: Nomads on the Borders of the Fertile Crescent 9th-5th Centuries B.C. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, the Hebrew University, 1984.
Everling, Janos. 2000. "Chronological List of Texts from the First Millennium B.C. Babylonia". Two URLs: <http://www.nexus.hu/enkidu/lists/CHRON.CHN> for dated texts and incongruously <http://www.nexus.hu/enkidu/lists/CHRON2.CHN> for undated ones. Generated 05.07.00, probably meaning July 5, 2000, probably from the ongoing data collection it is part of, Babylonian Texts of the First Millennium B.C., home URL <http://www.nexus.hu/enkidu/enkidu.html>.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Fitzmyer, S.J., Joseph A., and Stephen A. Kaufman, with the collaboration of Stephan F. Bennett and Edward M. Cook. 1992. Old, Official, and Biblical Aramaic. Part I of An Aramaic Bibliography. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, c 1992.
Franke, Herbert. 1990. "The forest peoples of Manchuria: Kitans and Jurchens". Chapter 15, pp. 371-399, of Sinor 1990 (bibliography pp. 490-492, edited by Sinor).
Frye, Richard N. 1963. The Heritage of Persia. Cleveland/New York: The World Publishing Company, c 1963.
Note that this book is cited in scholars' references with dates ranging from about 1961 to the mid-1970s. This undoubtedly reflects its frequent reprinting. The edition I cite claims to be a first edition, but I would not be shocked if this were untrue, in particular if a London edition were earlier.
Frye, R. N., ed. 1975. The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Volume 4 of CHI. [London/New York]: Cambridge University Press, c 1975.
Frye, Richard N. 1984. The History of Ancient Iran. Siebenter Teil of the dritte Abteilung of Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft, begründet von Iwan von Müller, erweitert von Walter Otto, fortgeführt von Hermann Bengtson. München: C. H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, c 1984.
Frye, Richard N. 1996. The Heritage of Central Asia. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, c 1996.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f
g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Gabain, Annemarie von. 1964a. Alttürkische Schreibkultur und Druckerei. Pp. 171-191 of Bazin et alii 1964.
Gabain, Annemarie von. 1964b. Die alttürkische Literatur. Pp. 211-243 of Bazin et alii 1964.
*Gafni, Isaiah. 1986. Yahadut Bavel u-mosdotehah bi-tekufat ha-Talmud. Sefer 2 of Mekorot le-toldot ʿam Yiʾsraʾel. Yerushalayim: Merkaz Zalman Shazar le-toldot Yiʾsraʾel, 1986.
Gershevitch, Ilya. 1968. "Old Iranian Literature". Pp. 1-30 of Lieferung 1 of Literatur, zweiter Abschnitt of Iranistik, vierter Band of Der nähe und der mittlere Osten, herausgegeben von B. Spuler, erste Abteilung of Handbuch der Orientalistik, herausgegeben von B. Spuler unter Mitarbeit von H. Franke, J. Gonda, H. Hammitzsch, W. Helck, J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw und F. Vos. (= HdO 1.4.2.1) Leiden/Köln: E. J. Brill, 1968.
Gershevitch, Ilya. 1983. "Bactrian Literature". Chapter 36 and pp. 1250-1258 of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography p. 1396).
Gershevitch, Ilya, ed. 1985. The Median and Achaemenian Periods. Volume 2 of CHI. Cambridge [etc.]: Cambridge University Press, c 1985.
Gharib, B. 1995. Sogdian Dictionary. Sogdian-Persian-English. [Tehran]: Farhangan Publications, c 1995.
Gignoux, Philippe. 1983. "Middle Persian Inscriptions". Chapter 32(c), pp. 1205-1215 of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1390-1391).
Gignoux, Ph. 1996. "Zoroastrianism". Part One, pp. 403-412, of "Religions and religious movements - I" by Ph. Gignoux and B. A. Litvinsky. Chapter 17, pp. 403-420, of Litvinsky et alii 1996 (bibliography pp. 544-548).
Gillman, Ian, and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit. 1999. Christians in Asia before 1500. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, c 1999.
[Gippert, Jost]. 1997. "TITUS Bibliography Tocharian". URL <http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/biblio/tocharic.htm>. A page within Tocharian Manuscripts from the Berlin Turfan Collection, ed. Jost Gippert & Katharina Kupfer, 2000, home URL <http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/tocharic/tht.htm>. A part of Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien, [aka] TITUS, [apparently ed.] Jost Gippert, Javier Martínez, & Agnes Korn, 2000, home URL (with annoying frames present) <http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/>. It is not clear that the bibliography is in fact Gippert's work, nor that its date is in fact 1997 (though it cannot be earlier).
Golden, Peter B. 1990. "The peoples of the Russian forest belt". Pp. 229-255 of Sinor 1990 (bibliography pp. 457-466).
Goossens, Godefroy. 1952. «L'Assyrie après l'Empire». Pp. 84-100 (one comment, with no reply by Goossens cited, occupies two lines of p. 101) of Compte Rendu de la troisième Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale organisée à Leiden du 28 juin au 4 juillet 1952 par le Nederlandsch Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. Leiden: Nederlandsch Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1954.
Grinstead, Eric. 1972. Analysis of the Tangut Script. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series No. 10. [Lund]: Studentlitteratur, c 1972.
*Gryaznov, Mikhail P. 1969. The ancient civilization of Southern Siberia. Trans. James Hogarth [but apparently not from a book published in Russian?]. A volume in Ancient civilizations. London: Cresset P., 1969 / New York: Cowles Book Co., [1969]. Also published as Southern Siberia, a volume in Archaeologia mundi directed by Jean Marcadé, Geneva [etc.]: Nagel Publishers, c 1969.
Gulya, János. 1966. Eastern Ostyak Chrestomathy. Volume 51 of Uralic and Altaic Series, ed. Thomas A. Sebeok, of Indiana University Publications. [There is also unexplained text on p. II (opposite the title page), to wit: Developmental Work on Material in West Siberian Languages. This may be the title of another series to which the book may belong.] Bloomington: Indiana University/The Hague: Mouton & Co., c 1966.
Gündüz, Şinasi. 1994. The Knowledge of Life. The Origins and Early History of the Mandaeans and Their Relation to the Sabians of the Qurʾān and to the Harranians. Journal of Semitic Studies Supplement 3. [Oxford]: Oxford University Press on behalf of the University of Manchester, 1994.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Hambly, Gavin, with Alexandre Bennigsen, David Bivar, Hélène Carrère d'Encausse, Mahin Hajianpur, Alastair Lamb, Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay and Richard Pierce. 1966. Central Asia. [London]: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, [1969].
Note that a German edition preceded this one (Gavin Hambly, herausg., Zentralasien, Band 16 of Fischer Weltgeschichte, [Frankfurt am Main]: Fischer Bücherei, [1966]). But all the chapters except Carrère d'Encausse's were originally written in English, and hers in French!
Hansen, Olaf. 1968. Die buddhistische und christliche Literatur. Pp. 77-99 of Lieferung 1 of Literatur, zweiter Abschnitt of Iranistik, vierter Band of Der nähe und der mittlere Osten, herausgegeben von B. Spuler, erste Abteilung of Handbuch der Orientalistik, herausgegeben von B. Spuler unter Mitarbeit von H. Franke, J. Gonda, H. Hammitzsch, W. Helck, J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw und F. Vos. (= HdO 1.4.2.1) Leiden/Köln: E. J. Brill, 1968.
Harding, G. Lankester. 1971. An Index and Concordance of Pre-Islamic Arabian Names and Inscriptions. 8 in Near and Middle East Series. [Toronto/Buffalo]: University of Toronto Press, c 1971.
Harmatta, J. 1994. "Languages and literature in the Kushan Empire". Chapter 17, pp. 417-440, of Harmatta et alii 1994 (bibliography pp. 545-547).
Harmatta, János, with B. N. Puri and G. F. Etemadi, ed's. 1994. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Volume II of HCCA. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, [1994].
See HCCA for information on finding this book in libraries.
HCCA = History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volumes so far published are Dani and Masson 1992, Harmatta et alii 1994, Litvinsky et alii 1996, and Asimov and Bosworth 1998 and 2000, which see. Note that many libraries' catalogues are under the delusion that Dani and Masson are the principal editors of the entire series (in fact, the leader of the enterprise, until his death, was Asimov); you are best off searching by the title of the series instead.
HdO = Handbuch der Orientalistik. This series, which began as a systematic set of handbooks and has become a somewhat disconnected series of (mostly) reference books, is of inestimable value, and so many academic libraries carry it. But it's a bibliographic nightmare—for example, many volumes can be bound together, while also many volumes lack their own titles—and thus items in it are hard to find in about half of those libraries (the ones that don't shelve the entire series in one place). Therefore I provide full, repetitive, bibliographic detail in each reference here; have fun spotting the inconsistencies! In general when searching for part of the HdO in a library that shelves them all in one place, you're well advised to skip any catalogue and just shelf read the relevant shelves carefully; the volumes will probably not be in the order specified by the series anyway. In libraries that shelve the volumes individually, search the catalogue for every title or author listed in the reference until you find something that at least vaguely resembles the reference (if you're lucky); failing that, it may be worth trying a shelf search under some approximation of the relevant topic. The references to the HdO for this chapter include Boyce 1968a, 1968b, 1975, 1982 and 1991, Gershevitch 1968, Hansen 1968, Krause 1971, Widengren 1966; if I'd had local access to a full set, I could probably have multiplied these many times.
Hinüber, Oskar von. 1986. Das ältere Mittelindisch im Überblick. Heft 20 of Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für Sprachen und Kulturen Südasiens. 467. Band of Sitzungsberichte, Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-historische Klasse. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1986.
Hinüber, Oskar von. 1996. A Handbook of Pāli Literature. Volume 2 of Indian Philology and South Asian Studies, ed. Albrecht Wezler and Michael Witzel. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1996.
Holt, Frank L. 1999. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. Volume XXXII of Hellenistic Culture and Society ed. Anthony W. Bulloch, Erich S. Gruen, A. A. Long, and Andrew F. Stewart. Berkeley [etc.]: University of California Press, c 1999.
Huehnergard, John. 1995. "Semitic Languages". Pp. 2117-2134 of Sasson 1995.
Humbach, Helmut. 1989. "Choresmian". Section 3.2.2, pp. 193-203, of Schmitt 1989b.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Idema, Wilt, and Lloyd Haft. 1997. A Guide to Chinese Literature. Translated by Haft, and revised and updated by both authors, from Chinese letterkunde. Inleiding, historisch overzicht en bibliografieën (Utrecht/Antwerpen: Uitgeverij Het Spectrum, [1985]). Volume 74 of Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, the University of Michigan, 1997.
Ishjamts, N. 1994. "Nomads in eastern Central Asia". Chapter 6, pp. 151-169, of Harmatta et alii 1994 (bibliography pp. 523-525).
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i
j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Jamme, A. 1955. "South-Arabian Inscriptions". Pp. 663-670 of Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Third Edition with Supplement. Ed. James B. Pritchard. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.
This material also appeared in the 1955 second edition but not in the 1950 first edition.
Jayawardhana, Somapala. 1994. Handbook of Pali Literature. [Colombo]: Karunaratne & Sons Ltd, [1994].
Jin Qicong. 1995. "Jurchen Literature under the Chin". Pp. 216-237 in China under Jurchen Rule. Essays on Chin Intellectual and Cultural History edited by Hoyt Cleveland Tillman and Stephen H. West. A volume in SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture ed. David L. Hall and Roger T. Ames. [Albany]: State University of New York Press, c 1995.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Kachru, Braj B. 1981. Kashmiri Literature. Volume VIII fascicule 4 of A History of Indian Literature edited by Jan Gonda. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1981.
Kalla, K. L., ed. 1985. The Literary History of Kashmir. Delhi: Mittal Publications, [1985].
Kiyose, Gisaburo N. 1977. A Study of the Jurchen Language and Script. Reconstruction and Decipherment. Kyoto: Hōritsubunka-sha, [1977].
Klíma, Otakar. 1968. "Avesta. Ancient Persian Inscriptions. Middle Persian Literature". Pages 1-67 of Rypka 1968a.
Koshelenko, G. A., and V. N. Pilipko. 1994. "Parthia". Chapter 5, pp. 131-150, of Harmatta et alii 1994 (bibliography pp. 522-523).
Krause, Wolfgang. 1971. Tocharisch. Dritter Abschnitt of Iranistik, vierter Band of Der nähe und der mittlere Osten, herausgegeben von B. Spuler, erste Abteilung of Handbuch der Orientalistik, herausgegeben von B. Spuler unter Mitarbeit von H. Franke, J. Gonda, H. Hammitzsch, W. Helck, J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw und F. Vos. (= HdO 1.4.3) Leiden/Köln: E. J. Brill, 1971.
Krause, Wolfgang, and Werner Thomas. 1960. Grammatik. Band I of their Tocharisches Elementarbuch. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1960.
Kuløy, Hallvard Kåre, and Yoshiro Imaeda. 1986. Bibliography of Tibetan Studies. Volume II, Monographic Series of Naritasan Institute for Buddhist Studies, ed. Shoren Ihara. [Narita]: Naritasan Shinshoji, 1986.
Kychanov, Y. I. 1998. "The Tangut Hsi Hsia kingdom (982-1227)". Part Three, pp. 206-214, of "The Uighurs, the Kyrgyz and the Tangut (eighth to the thirteenth century)" by D. Sinor, Geng Shimin and Y. I. Kychanov. Chapter 9, pp. 191-214 (bibliography pp. 452-456), of Asimov and Bosworth 1998.
Kyzlasov, L. R. 1996. "Northern nomads". Chapter 13, pp. 315-325, of Litvinsky et alii 1996 (bibliography pp. 536-537).
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Le Coz, Raymond. 1995. L'Église d'Orient. Chrétiens d'Irak, d'Iran et de Turquie. Paris: Les Éditions du Cerf, 1995.
Levin, M. G., and L. P. Potapov, ed's. 1956. The Peoples of Siberia. Translated by Scripta Technica, Inc., edited [mostly by deletions] by Stephen Dunn, from Narody Sibiri (Moscow: Russian Academy of Science, 1956). Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, [1964].
Lieu, Samuel N. C. 1985. Manichaeism in the later Roman Empire and Medieval China. A Historical Survey. [Manchester and Dover, New Hampshire]: Manchester University Press, c 1985.
Lieu, Samuel N. C. 1992. Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China. 63 in Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, begründet von Joachim Jeremias und Otto Michel, herausgegeben von Martin Hengel und Otfried Hofius. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), c 1992.
Lieu, Samuel N. C. 1998. "Working Catalogue of published Manichaean texts". Chapter VII, pp. 196-246, of his Manichaeism in Central Asia and China. Volume XLV of Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies, formerly Nag Hammadi Studies, ed. S. Emmel & H. J. Klimkeit. Leiden [etc.]: Brill, 1998.
Lieu, Samuel. 1999. "PROGRAM INFO.- Corpus Fontium Manichaeorum for Manichaean Studies". URL (which seems to change often) <http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~casww/calarc/calarc_prog06.html#PROG_Corpus_Fontium_Manic1999_10_25>. The entire page of which this is part is page 6 of "Program Information", home URL <http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~casww/calarc/calarc_prog.html>, part 1. of Central Asia-L Announcement Archive, which has no independent URL, uncredited and undated, but probably a partly-automated ongoing archive of the referenced mailing list. In turn, part of <<< Central Asian Studies World Wide >>>, also uncredited and undated, sponsored by the Harvard Forum for Central Asian Studies, home URL <http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~casww/>.
*Litvinsky, B. A. 1968. Outline History of Buddhism in Central Asia. Dushanbe: [no publisher ever stated], 1968.
This work is nearly always cited in this hypothetical printing, and sometimes described as a pamphlet; the printing is also sometimes reported as coming from Moscow. A record in Worldcat credits a 1968 printing to Nauka, Central Department of Oriental Literature, and says it was 109 pages. That record also indicates that the work was presented at a 1968 conference in Dushanbe. It considers the author's name to be Litvinski. After copious efforts, I still haven't seen any copies printed in either place. So I will point instead to a slightly more accessible reprint:
Litvinsky, B. A. 1968. "Outline History of Buddhism in Central Asia". Pp. 53-132 of Kushan Studies in U. S. S. R. by B. Gafurov, M. Asimov, G. M. Bongard-Levin, B. Ya. Stavisky, B. A. Litvinsky and others [ed. Bongard-Levin]. A volume of Indian Studies: Past and Present ed. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya. Calcutta: R. K. Maitra at the R. D. Press, [1970].
Litvinsky, B. A. 1979. "Central Asia". Pp. 21-52 of Dhirasekera 1979.
Litvinsky, B. A. 1996a. "Manichaeism". Part Two, pp. 412-420, of "Religions and Religious Movements - I" by Ph. Gignoux and B. A. Litvinsky. Chapter 17, pp. 403-420, of Litvinsky et alii 1996 (bibliography pp. 544-548).
Litvinsky, B. A. 1996b. "Christianity, Indian and local religions". Part One, pp. 421-431, of "Religions and religious movements - II" by B. A. Litvinsky and M. I. Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya. Chapter 18, pp. 421-448, of Litvinsky et alii 1996 (bibliography pp. 548-551).
Litvinsky, Boris A. 1999. Die Geschichte des Buddhismus in Ostturkestan. Translated [by Maria Schetelich] from [a revision, by the author, of] "Buddizm", chapter 14, pp. 427-508, of Vostočnyj Turkestan v drevnosti i rannem srednevekov'e, ed. the author (Moscow: Nauka", Glav. red. vostochnoi lit-ry, 1992). Volume 44 of Studies in Oriental Religions ed. Walther Heissig and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1999.
Litvinsky, B. A., with Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi, ed's. 1996. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III of HCCA. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, [1996].
See HCCA for information on finding this book in libraries.
Loewe, Michael, ed. 1993. Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. No. 2 of Early China special monograph series. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China, The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1993.
Loewe, Michael, & Edward L. Shaughnessy, ed's. 1999. The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. [Cambridge etc.]: Cambridge University Press, [1999].
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l
m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Ma Yong and Sun Yutang. 1994. "The Western Regions under the Hsiung-nu and the Han". Chapter 10, pp. 227-246, of Harmatta et alii 1994 (bibliography pp. 530-532).
Ma Yong and Wang Binghua. 1994. "The culture of the Xinjiang region". Chapter 9, pp. 209-225, of Harmatta et alii 1994 (bibliography pp. 529-530).
MacKenzie, D. N. 1983. "Khwarazmian Language and Literature". Chapter 35 and pp. 1244-1249 of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1395-1396).
Maheshwari, Hiralal. 1980. History of Rajasthani Literature. [New Delhi etc.]: Sahitya Akademi, [1980].
Marshak, B. I.. 1996. "Sughd and adjacent regions". Part One, pp. 233-258, of "Sogdiana" by B. I. Marshak and N. N. Negmatov. Chapter 10, pp. 233-280, of Litvinsky et alii 1996 (bibliography pp. 529-532).
Masson, Vadim M. 1996. "Archaeological Cultures of Southern Siberia and Mongolia". Part 2, pp. 446-449, of "Nomadic Cultures of Central Asia from 700 BC to AD 300". Chapter 23, pp. 443-464, of "Central Asia and the Nomads", [?ed. Richard N. Frye]. Part VI, pp. 439-479, of From the Seventh Century BC to the Seventh Century AD, ed. Joachim Herrmann and Erik Zürcher, co-ed. J. Harmatta, J. K. Litvak, R. Lonis, T. Obenga, R. Thapar, and Zhou Yiliang. Volume III of History of Humanity: Scientific and Cultural Development. [London/New York]: Routledge Reference/[Paris]: UNESCO; [1996].
Menasce, J. de. 1975. "Zoroastrian Literature after the Muslim Conquest". Chapter 17, pp. 543-565 of Frye 1975 (bibliography pp. 690-691).
Menasce, Jean de. 1983. "Zoroastrian Pahlavi Writings". With additions by Ehsan Yarshater and footnotes and bibliography by Philippe Gignoux. Chapter 32(a), pp. 1166-1195 of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1384-1389).
Michalowski, Piotr. 1995. "Sumerian Literature: An Overview". Pp. 2279-2291 of Sasson 1995.
Millar, Fergus. 1993. The Roman Near East: 31 BC - AD 337. Cambridge/London: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Moffett, Samuel Hugh. 1998. Beginnings to 1500. Volume I of A History of Christianity in Asia. 1st ed. [New York]: Harper SanFrancisco, c 1992. 2nd ed. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, c 1998.
Morony, Michael G. 1984. Iraq after the Muslim Conquest. Princeton: Princeton University Press, c 1984.
Moss, Cyril. 1962. Catalogue of Syriac Printed Books and Related Literature in the British Museum. London: the Trustees of the British Museum, 1962.
Mukhamedjanov, A. R. 1994. "Economy and social system in Central Asia in the Kushan age". Chapter 12, pp. 265-290, of Harmatta et alii 1994 (bibliography pp. 535-536).
Müller, W. W. 1989. "Mārib". Pp. 559-567 of volume VI, Mahk-Mid, of The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, ed. (with respect to these pages) C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs, and Ch. Pellat .... Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991, but this fascicule dates to 1989 per copyright page.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Negmatov, N. N. 1994. "States in north-western Central Asia". Chapter 18, pp. 441-456, of Harmatta et alii 1994 (bibliography pp. 547-550).
Negmatov, N. N. 1996. "Ustrushana, Ferghana, Chach and Ilak". Part Two, pp. 259-280, of "Sogdiana" by B. I. Marshak and N. N. Negmatov. Chapter 10, pp. 233-280, of Litvinsky et alii 1996 (bibliography pp. 529-532).
Nerazik, E. E. 1996. "History and culture of Khwarizm". Part One, pp. 207-222, of "Khwarizm" by E. E. Nerazik and P. G. Bulgakov. Chapter 9, pp. 207-231, of Litvinsky et alii 1996 (bibliography pp. 527-529).
Neusner, Jacob. 1965-1970. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. All volumes are also volumina in Studia Post-Biblica ed. P. A. H. de Boer, as follows. Volume I The Parthian Period, 1965, volumen nonum. Volume II The Early Sasanian Period, 1966, volumen undecimum. Volume III From Shapur I to Shapur II, 1968, volumen duodecimum. Volume IV The Age of Shapur II, 1969, volumen quartum decimum. Volume V Later Sasanian Times, 1970, volumen quintum decimum. All Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Neusner, J. 1983. "Jews in Iran". Chapter 24, pp. 909-923, of Yarshater 1983b (bibliography pp. 1354-1355).
Neusner, Jacob. 1994. Introduction to Rabbinic Literature. New York [etc.]: The Anchor Bible Reference Library, Doubleday, [1994].
Nienhauser, Jr., William H., ed., with Charles Hartman, Y. W. Ma and Stephen H. West. 1988. The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature. 2nd edition. Taipei: SMC Publishing Inc., [1986]—1986 is the date asserted by the copyright page, but the true date is 1988 (evident from the preface, from the original edition's 1986 date, and from Wilkinson 1998: 565 and Nienhauser 1998: vii).
Nienhauser, Jr., William H., ed. and compiler, with Charles Hartman and Scott W. Galer. 1998. The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature. Volume 2. Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, c 1998.
Norman, K. R. 1983. Pali Literature. Including the Canonical Literature in Prakrit and Sanskrit of all the Hinayana Schools of Buddhism. Fascicle 2 of Buddhist and Jaina Literature. Volume VII of A History of Indian Literature ed. Jan Gonda. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1983.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Oates, David. 1968. Studies in the Ancient History of Northern Iraq. London: for the British Academy by the Oxford University Press, 1968.
Oelsner, Joachim. 1986. Materialien zur babylonischen Gesellschaft und Kultur in hellenistischer Zeit. Number VII of Assyriologia, herausgegeben von G. Komoróczy. Number 40 of Az Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem Ókori Történeti Assziriológiai és Egyiptológiai Tanszékeinek kiadványai. Budapest: Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem [? = Eötvös University], 1986.
(As this reference implies, the bibliographic information contained in this book's opening pages is unusually complex; it is also in Hungarian, so I can hardly be sure I've analysed it correctly. Fortunately, by some miracle, the few libraries in the US that own this book actually catalogue it under its author and title.)
Okladnikov, A. P. 1956. "Ancient Population of Siberia and Its Culture". Pp. 13-98 of Levin and Potapov 1956.
But a better choice, for an English translation, is the printing as:
Okladnikov, A. P. 1956. Ancient Population of Siberia and Its Cultures. [Apparently translated by Henry Field and Hallam L. Movius, Jr.] Vol. I, No. 1 of Russian Translation Series of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. Cambridge, Mass.: the Peabody Museum, 1959.
Okladnikov, A. P. 1959. The Soviet Far East in Antiquity: An Archaeological and Historical Study of the Maritime Region of the U. S. S. R. Ed. Henry N. Michael. [Trans. Dr. Paul Tolstoy and Dr. and Mrs. Stephen P. Dunn from Dalekoe proshloe Primor'ia: ocherki po drevnoi i srednevekovoi istorii Primorskogo Kraia, Vladivostok: Primorskoe knizknoe izd-vo, 1959. The source is not identified in the book nor dated; there does not appear to be new material.] No. 6 of Anthropology of the North: Translations from Russian Sources, Arctic Institute of North America, ed. Henry N. Michael. [Toronto?]: University of Toronto Press for the Arctic Institute of North America, c 1965.
Okladnikov, A. P. 1970. Yakutia before Its Incorporation into the Russian State. Ed. Henry N. Michael. [The new material is apparently confined to the author's foreword and attached notes, pp. xxiii-xxxviii; otherwise, trans. Dr. and Mrs. Stephen P. Dunn from IAkutiia do prisoedineniia k russkomu gosudarstvu, volume 1 of Istoriia IAkutskoi ASSR, from the Institut iazyka literatury i istorii IAkutskogo filiala AN SSSR, Moskva: Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1955. This is in turn a revision and expansion of Istoriia IAkutii, published in 1949 by the Institut iazyka, literatury, istorii i iskusstva of IAkutskaia nauchno-issledovatel'skaia boza and by Institut istorii of Akademiia nauk SSSR. The source is not identified in the translation except by date.] Number 8 of Anthropology of the North: Translations from Russian Sources, Arctic Institute of North America, ed. Henry N. Michael. Montreal & London: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1970.
Oppenheim, A. L. 1985. "The Babylonian Evidence of Achaemenian Rule in Mesopotamia". Chapter 10, pp. 529-587, of Gershevitch 1985 (bibliography pp. 905-914).
*Oppenheimer, Aharon, with Benjamin Isaac and Michael Lecker. 1983. Babylonia Judaica in the Talmudic Period. Nr. 47 of Geisteswissenschaften, Reihe B of Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients. Wiesbaden: L. Reichert, 1983.
The detail of this reference is reconstructed from the Web because I goofed at the library where I finally saw a copy (University of Massachusetts at Amherst) and forgot to note detail once I realised this wasn't the book I had (through no fault of Oppenheimer's) hoped it would be.
Ortiz de Urbina, I. 1965. Patrologia Syriaca. Romae: Pont. Institutum Orientalium Studiorum, 1958. Altera editio emendata et aucta, Romae: Pont. Institutum Orientalium Studiorum, 1965.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
p q r s t u v w x y z
Poppe, Nicholas. 1970. Mongolian Language Handbook. Vol. [4] in Language Handbook Series ed. Frank A. Rice. [Washington]: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1970.
Potts, D. T. 1990a. From Prehistory to the Fall of the Achaemenid Empire. Volume I of his The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.
Potts, D. T. 1990b. From Alexander the Great to the Coming of Islam. Volume II of his The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.
Puech, Henri-Charles. 1949. Le Manichéisme. Son Fondateur - Sa Doctrine. Tome LVI of Musée Guimet Bibliothèque de Diffusion. Paris: Civilisations du Sud, S. A. E. P., c 1949.
Puri, B. N. 1987. Buddhism in Central Asia. Volume IV of Buddhist Traditions, ed. Alex Wayman. Delhi [etc.]: Motilal Banarsidass, [1987].
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Raschke, Manfred G. 1978. "New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East". Pp. 604 to end (in table of contents 1378; by my count 1382; last numbered page is 1361) of 2. Halbband of Politische Geschichte (Provinzen und Randvölker: Mesopotamien, Armenien, Iran, Südarabien, Rom und der Ferne Osten) herausgegeben von Hildegard Temporini. Neunter Band of [Politische Geschichte. 1. Rubrik of] Principat herausgegeben von Hildegard Temporini und Wolfgang Haase. Teil II von Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt. Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1978. (The volume is usually abbreviated ANRW II.9.2.)
The bare citation (or rather, the baroque citation!) does not really indicate what this extraordinary document is like, so here's a breakdown of it.
Page 604 includes a table of contents and a preface.
Pp. 605-681 are the text:
"Introduction", 605-606;
"The Rise of the Silk Trade", 606-622, whose principal argument is that the silk trade was fed mainly by Chinese tribute or gifts to Central Asian agricultural and nomadic states, not by Chinese intent;
"Silk and the Imbalance of Trade", 622-637, which eviscerates the claim in Pliny that the silk trade drained the coffers of the Roman empire by surveying the evidence for Roman coinage in the east and by examining whether Roman bureaucracy would have enabled anyone to document Pliny's claim;
"The Middlemen", 637-650, which further damns Pliny by arguing that essentially no traders are known from the first two centuries AD along the so-called Silk Route except for traders from Rome herself, specifically from Syria and Egypt;
"The Spice Trade", 650-676, which I have not had time to read but which appears to argue that most of Rome's real trade deficit was run in getting spices from southern India and other Indian Ocean ports, and which appears to look further past AD 200 than most of the rest of the paper;
"Conclusion", 676-679, on methods and on the third century AD;
and "Appendix: The Roman City in China", 679-681, calling this hypothesis "a work of fiction of moderate interest", which is fairly typical of Raschke's approach to scholarly courtesy.
Pp. 681-1076 are the notes, furnishing bibliography (often extensive and usually pointing to any primary sources) for pretty much everything Raschke happens to mention in the text (there are 1791 notes, or more than 20 per page). This is why I gave at least a hint of what topics he touches on and where. One particularly nice aspect is that where his evidence is flimsy (and this happens perhaps once per page of text) the notes reflect it clearly without much specious argumentation; see for example notes 680-686, pp. 802-805, which (among other things) try to defend his "working hypothesis" of Kushan rule in eastern Xinjiang, p. 640.
Pp. 1076-1213 are the bibliography of secondary literature,
and pp. 1213-1233 list abbreviations (including most of the primary sources);
there is a list of illustrations as well on p. 1233 (two plates, of the same pot, and six maps which show many but not all of the sites referred to in the text and notes).
Pp. 1234-1243 contain "Select Addenda" since the paper was some years in press.
Pp. 1244-1361 offer seventeen indices, showing the thoughtfulness and incompleteness of hand compilation.
There follow the first four maps, the plates, the final two maps, and then the keys to the maps.
I suspect that as of publication date—prior to Yarshater 1983a and 1983b, prior to Sinor 1990, and obviously prior to HCCA—Raschke's book was in fact the best guide in English to the scholarship on Asia from AD 1 to 200, although this was hardly his main goal. It remains an exceptional example of what systematic scholarship must look like in modern times, and why nobody attempts such a thing on the grand scale any more. In my view, which is not universally shared by any means, Raschke didn't just attempt it but succeeded enough to remain persuasive for a long time.
Reiner, Erica. 1992. "Elamite". Pp. 406-409 of International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, volume 1. William Bright, editor in chief. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Rice, Michael. 1994. The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf c. 5000-323 BC. The Experience of Archaeology series ed. Andrew Wheatcraft. London and New York: Routledge, [1994].
Robin, Ch. 1989. "al-Mat̲h̲aminā". Pp. 829-832 of volume VI, Mahk-Mid, of The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, ed. (with respect to these pages) C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs, and Ch. Pellat .... Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991, but this fascicule dates to 1989 per copyright page.
Robin, Ch. 1998. "al-Sawdāʾ". Pp. 90-92 of volume IX, S Continuation: Sana-Sz'ekesfeh'erv'ar, of The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, ed. Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs .... Leiden: Brill, 1998.
Robinson, Richard H., and Willard L. Johnson, assisted [non-trivially] by Sandra A. Wawrytko and Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff). 1997. The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Fourth edition. A volume in Religious Life in History ed. Charles Hallisey. Belmont, California [et numerous cetera]: Wadsworth Publishing Company, c 1997.
The reference cited is original to this edition; there is nothing similar in the equivalent pages (102-105) of the third edition: Robinson, Richard H., and Willard L. Johnson, assisted by Kathryn Tsai and Shinzen Young. Same title. A volume in The Religious Life of Man ed. Frederick J. Streng. Same publisher, c 1982; previous editions c 1977 and c 1970.
Rudolph, Kurt. 1976. Die mandäische Literatur. Pp. 147-170 of Zur Sprache und Literatur der Mandäer by [sic] Rudolf Macuch, which is Band I of Studia Mandaica herausgegeben von Rudolf Macuch (and it is under the series title that many libraries catalogue this book although no other volumes seem to have appeared). Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1976.
Rypka, Jan, ed. 1968a. History of Iranian Literature. Edited by Karl Jahn and translated by P. van Popta-Hope from Iranische Literaturgeschichte (Leipzig: VEB Otto Harrassowitz, 1959), Band 4 of Iranische Texte und Hilfsbücher. Translated by Robert Šálek and Helena Turková and edited by Heinrich F. J. Junker from Dějiny Perské a Tadžické Literatury (Praha: Nakladatelstvi Československé akademie věd, 1956). Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1968.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
— Countries
References a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
*Sajjadi, Alaeddine. 1971. [Mezhuy adabi kurdi. [Yes, Worldcat claims that this edition's title begins with a bracket, unlike the first edition's title, which Worldcat transliterates differently.] Second edition. Baghdad: Chapkhanay Maʾarif, 1971 (first edition 1952).
Salibi, Kamal. 1980. A History of Arabia. [Delmar, N.Y.]: Caravan, [1980].
Samolin, William. 1964. East Turkistan to the Twelfth Century: A Brief Political Survey. Volume IX of Central Asiatic Studies ed. Karl Jahn and John R. Krueger. The Hague [etc.]: Mouton & Co, 1964.
Sander, Lore. 1979. "Buddhist Literature in Central Asia". Pp. 52-75 of Dhirasekera 1979.
Sasson, Jack, ed. 1995. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, Volume IV. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons / London [etc.]: Simon & Schuster and Prentice Hall International, c 1995.
Schippmann, Klaus. 1980. Grundzüge der parthischen Geschichte. Band 39 of Grundzüge. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1980.
Schippmann, Klaus. 1990. Grundzüge der Geschichte des sasanidischen Reiches. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, c 1990.
Schmidt, Klaus T. 1994. Zur Erforschung der tocharischen Literatur. Stand und Aufgaben. Pp. 239-283 of Tocharisch. Akten der Fachtagung der Indogermanische Gesellschaft Berlin, September 1990, herausgegeben von Bernfried Schlerath. Volume 4 of the supplementary series of Tocharian and Indo-European Studies, ed. Gudhrun Thórhallsdóttir. Reykjavík: Málvísindastofnun Háskóla Íslands, 1994.
Schmitt, Rüdiger. 1989a. Altpersisch. Section 2.2, pp. 56-85, of Schmitt 1989b.
Schmitt, Rüdiger, ed. 1989b. Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1989.
Schwentner, Ernst. 1959. Tocharische Bibliographie. 1890-1958. Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Institut für Orientforschung, Veroffentlichung Nr. 47. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1959.
Sezgin, Fuat. 1975. Poesie. Bis ca. 430 H. Band II of his Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975.
Shaughnessy, Edward L., ed. 1997. New Sources of Early Chinese History: An Introduction to the Reading of Inscriptions and Manuscripts. Number 3 of Early China special monograph series. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1997.
Sherwin-White, Susan, and Amélie Kuhrt. 1993. From Samarkhand to Sardis: A new approach to the Seleucid empire. Volume XIII of Hellenistic Culture and Society, ed. Anthony W. Bulloch, Erich S. Gruen, A. A. Long, and Andrew F. Stewart. Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, c 1993.
Sims-Williams, Nicholas. 1989a. "Sogdian". Section 3.2.1, pp. 173-192, of Schmitt 1989b.
Sims-Williams, Nicholas. 1989b. "Bactrian". Section 3.2.4.1, pp. 230-235, of Schmitt 1989b.
Sinor, Denis, ed. 1990. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge [etc.]: Cambridge University Press, [1990].
Sinor, D. 1998. "The Kitan and the Kara Khitay". Chapter 11, pp. 227-242, of Asimov and Bosworth 1998 (bibliography pp. 457-458).
Skilton, Andrew (Dharmacari Sthiramati). 1994. A Concise History of Buddhism. [Birmingham]: Windhorse Publications, c 1994.
Smirnov, U. A. 1975. The Lahndi Language. A volume in Languages of Asia and Africa. Translated by E. H. Tsipan from Yaz'k Lendi (Moscow: the same publisher, 1970). Moscow: <<Nauka>> Publishing House, Central Department of Oriental Literature, 1975.
Smith, G. R. 1998. "Ṣanʿāʾ". Pp. 1-3 of volume IX, S Continuation: Sana-Sz'ekesfeh'erv'ar, of The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, ed. Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs .... Leiden: Brill, 1998.
Smith, Helmer. 1948. "Texts". Section a., pp. 37*-69*, of "Bibliography". Part B, pp. 37*-91, of Epilegomena to Vol. I of A Critical Pāli Dictionary, begun by U. Trenckner, ... ed. Dines Andersen, Helmer Smith and Hans Hendriksen. Copenhagen: Commissioner: Ejnar Munksgaard, or The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, 1948. At the head of the title page, with what significance I don't know: "Det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab."
Note that this is usually bound with the Volume I to which it provides epilegomena; also note that although most of its pages are asterisked, page 91 really isn't.
Stemberger, Günter. 1996. Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash. Second edition. Revised translation by Markus Bockmuehl from Einleitung in Talmud und Midrasch (München: C. H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1992), eighth edition. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, [1996].
Note that previous editions (including the first in English and an uncertain number in German) listed Hermann L. Strack as author; his first edition appeared in 1887.
Stolper, Matthew W. 1994. "Mesopotamia, 482-330 B.C.". Chapter 8b, pp. 234-260 (bibliography pp. 966-973), of The Fourth Century B.C., ed. D. M. Lewis, John Boardman, Simon Hornblower, and M. Ostwald. Volume VI of The Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd ed. [Cambridge etc.]: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Sundermann, Werner. 1989a. Parthisch. Section 3.1.1, pp. 114-137, of Schmitt 1989b.
Sundermann, Werner. 1989b. Mittelpersisch. Section 3.1.2, pp. 138-164, of Schmitt 1989b.
Sundermann, Werner. 1997. "The Manichaean texts in languages and scripts of Central Asia". Pp. 39-45 of Akiner and Sims-Williams 1997.
Introduction Languages introd. 1 2 3 4 5 6
M — Religions
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