2. MOROCCO

Please read the basics of this database before using it, and please read the details before writing me asking me to update it. But please do notify me of anything you're sure I should update.

The first version of this page (and all subsequent ones until this version) contained numerous errors. Please don't misunderstand: I still think it was the best introduction to Morocco's ancient history available in English. But that version repeatedly stated that some work does not exist, and in nearly every case, this version actually refers to such a work that already existed (and could have been known to me) by the time I first wrote that version. In addition, I mis-characterised some works which I had only skimmed, rather than read with care; and in at least one case, I stated a work existed which in fact appears not to exist. I have, therefore, preserved the most recent previous version as a way for you to judge the quality of my research for yourself as you use this database.

EXTENT

Morocco; Spanish region of Ceuta y Melilla.

Note that although this region is usually considered a part of the Maghreb and therefore in turn a part of North Africa, works on these larger areas often say little or nothing about this region's ancient history, and sometimes, by making generalisations that do not apply here, actively mislead. (For an example irrelevant to this period, the "Capsian" tradition of the stone ages is not found in most of this region, despite that tradition's alleged ubiquity in the Maghreb. More to the point, the Vandals seem not to have paid any attention to this region.)

This region is also part of the Muslim world.

SOURCES

No local literature survives from the period here dealt with. Extremely infrequent notices in Greek literature begin c 500 BC; somewhat more frequent Latin references begin c 100 BC. Arabic references date no earlier than the 8th century AD, and are not local until still later; they also appear to be scanty, and like the Greek and Latin ones, largely geographical in character. For the literary references, see:

Local inscriptions (Latin, Phoenician, Libyan, Hebrew) are scanty; for them see the following:

For archæology, see various articles subtitled or titled "Contribution à l'Atlas Archéologique du Maroc" in the Bulletin d'Archéologie Marocaine, and also the references below. (There is a detailed explanation of how the "Contribution" articles originated, providing references to each and to the one part published in book form, on pp. 9-19, particularly p. 17, of Le limes de Tingitane: La frontière méridionale by Maurice Euzennat, a volume of 'Études d'antiquités africaines', Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1989.)

Historians have agreed that a history of ancient Morocco could not be written, though they overstated the case. At any rate, it is now a generation since any specialist in ancient times wrote such an account, as far as I know, and still longer since such a specialist wrote an entire book. Work is done mainly in French, to a lesser extent in Spanish, and to a limited extent in other languages (Arabic, English, Italian...). Accounts of the same topic can differ substantially owing to differing interpretations of scanty evidence. Note that most of the references cited below are in French, and several of these ignore work not done in French; fortunately, the main bibliography of modern work on North Africa is not so restricted.

PERIODISATION AND TERMS

Note that in the following, I've intentionally mentioned events whose historicity is uncertain, on the principle that it's easier to find a disproof of an alleged event you know about than to find a proof of an alleged event you don't know about.

Late prehistory was the Bronze Age, and presumably Berber; there are moderately well-known etchings in the High Atlas from this period, but other remains are extremely scanty. This is probably partly because many inhabitants (such as the makers of the etchings) were partly or wholly nomadic.

Before 600 BC, but probably not before 800 BC, Phoenicians had founded towns on the coasts: mainly Ligs (Latin Lixus, modern Larache), also at modern Mogador, and perhaps modern Tangier (Latin Tingis) and Kenitra (Latin Thamusida). From c 500 BC to 204 BC, Carthage apparently dominated these and may have founded more: modern Melilla; perhaps modern Ceuta (Latin Septem), Tetuan (Latin Tamuda), Salé (Latin Sala), and Latin Volubilis (near Meknès). Also, a document purporting to be a record of Carthaginian settlement down the Atlantic coast, possibly (but probably not) beyond the Sahara, exists: the Periplus of Hanno.

In the hinterland, the Mauri, first mentioned in texts of c 400 BC, emerged as participants in wider politics during the Third Punic and the Jugurthine wars, 2nd century BC, if not earlier. King Bocchus of Mauretania (ruled from before 110 BC to after 92 BC) annexed much of coastal Algeria in 105 BC, but the two territories were later split again, with the border at the Moulouya River. To aid Antony's side in the civil wars of Rome, King Bogud invaded Spain several times starting in 48 BC; in 38 BC, his brother King Bocchus II, by then ruling most of coastal Algeria and allied with Octavian, annexed Bogud's lands. After Bocchus II died, the united territory was ruled by Rome 33 BC to 25 BC, and then, from Algeria, by "Mauretanian" kings again until AD 40, but with Roman colonies present (notably Banasa) and under Roman tutelage. Rome finally annexed the region in AD 40, and then put down rebellions led by the former king's freedman Ædemon and by the Berber leader Salabos until AD 43, after which Rome split the former kingdom into two provinces.

These were Mauretania Tingitana (west of the Moulouya) and, in Algeria, Mauretania Cæsariensis. (The area in this region east of the Moulouya is apparently barren of Roman-era remains.) Tingitana probably rebelled several times in the 2nd century AD (historians disagree about when); Mauri, probably from this region, invaded Spain in AD 170 and again later in that century. Whether Tingitana ever Romanised much is controversial, but some city dwellers certainly grew rich from olive oil and fish sauce (garum) exports. The capital was probably Tingis; there may also have been an administrative centre at Volubilis. Rome abandoned the latter and most of the country sometime after AD 285; the remainder became part of the diocese Hispaniæ, ruled from Spain, in 298. The Vandals' passage in AD 429 is sometimes said to have wiped out that Roman remnant, but Roman influence as far south as Salé may have survived thereafter.

Meanwhile, in the interior, whose geography had been greatly changed by the introduction of the camel in Roman times, local kingdoms - perhaps at Volubilis, certainly at Alteva just across the Algerian border - seem to have been Romanised Berber in character, and usually Christian; there may have been a Jewish kingdom around Tamegroute in the southeast. In AD 544, the Romans retook Septem from the Visigoths (whose arrival there is not recorded); the Visigoths probably got back there sometime before AD 700. The first invaders from the Muslim Umayyad Caliphate, led by Sidi Uqba ben Nafi, reached the area c AD 681; conquest came shortly after AD 708, led by Musa ben Nusayr.

Summary:
FromTo
Bronze Age ? ?
Phoenician ? 700 BC 500 BC
Punic 500 BC 204 BC
Mauretanian 204 BC AD 40
The preceding three periods are often referred to together as "Punic".
Roman AD 40 ? AD 429
(Romanised) Berber ? AD 285 AD 708

INTRODUCTORY

I know of three accounts in English longer than the above one. I do not find any of these genuinely reliable or especially full. Perhaps the least bad is:

But if you can read French, you have better options. There is an old history of Morocco whose section on ancient history is superb, although many libraries don't have copies; and there is a considerably more recent history of Morocco whose section on ancient history is anyway adequate, and which is owned by many libraries.

A review online of this second edition offers no comment on the ancient history section:

Previous versions of this page listed three other works here. One of these was, quite simply, a mistake on my part, and is now listed in its proper place below. The other two are definitely worse choices than any of the above if you plan to look at only a single book, but both offer more pictures than you'll find elsewhere.

RESEARCH

The situation here is better thanks to occasional scholarly papers. However, these papers are not necessarily reliable, and of course reviews of them are generally unavailable. For items subsequent to those listed here, see primarily Antiquités africaines (Paris) and secondarily L'Africa Romana (Sassari, Sardinia; for a typical year's citation see below).

Bronze Age

I have found neither a recent nor a full reference, but this article is, anyway, the best starting point known to me for study of this period in Morocco:

Phoenician presence

Punic and Mauretanian periods

I can recommend nothing whole-heartedly; I've seen no recent review, specific to this region, of these periods. The most promising-looking item I haven't seen is:

It is apparently reviewed in

Meanwhile, of what I have seen, I recommend you begin with

For a connected account, however, see (with much allowance for obsolescence by later work and with caution on chronology):

It would also be worthwhile to consult the corresponding reference on Algeria.

The literature on Hanno is fairly large and quite disjunct, as witness the significantly different views taken in three recent important reference works, which rely on references that don't much overlap. (Detailed citations at bottom.)

Roman period

Here matters are somewhat better. I have seen no general overview of Mauretania Tingitana comparable to the syntheses published on many other provinces, and nothing more generally informative, really, than the introductory works cited above (most of which give the Roman period first priority). But there are far more specialist articles than on the earlier or later periods covered here, and among these is one of anyway relatively general scope:

It's worth mentioning that one of those works Euzennat sees as part of the anti-colonial stream is in English. For this reason it's a relatively easy item for the anglophone reader to find, so I feel constrained to note it here and warn you about it. There is actually an entire paper devoted to setting the author straight, but this refutation is unfortunately not in English... Anyway, here are two of the previous works in the controversy Euzennat continues:

Euzennat cites both of these disapprovingly, but he tends to agree with Frézouls (although Euzennat more often considers evidence for conflict adequate), while he is frankly dismissive of Sigman, as are later francophone writers. If this subject deeply interests you, you may find both these earlier articles worth seeking out, but if not, Euzennat's is probably the only one you need read.

In addition, narrowly focused papers appear in nearly every annual volume of Antiquités africaines, and less consistently in other periodicals. The most recent book-length work I've seen (but not read), to be consulted for recent references if nothing else, is:

And see also Euzennat's book on the limes cited above under Sources.

Berber era

For the interior, although Villaverde Vega does briefly discuss Volubilis, you should really see one of the corresponding references on Algeria, as well as the books by Siraj and Jacques-Meunié cited above and below, respectively.

SUB-REGIONS

The above references almost all focus on the coasts and on the vicinity of Volubilis and Fez, which is to say, on those areas where the Phoenicians and Romans were present. There is, however, a book-length history of more or less the entire remainder of the region, which is primarily about the mediæval period but which does offer some pages on ancient times.

Note

Following first posting to Usenet newsgroup soc.history.ancient, this will not be reposted until full update or in response to someone's request.

Detailed citations on Hanno.

The first two rely on Desanges and Jodin, to differing degrees; the third, on Blomqvist, who is not even cited by the first two. Nor does the third cite Desanges or Jodin.

Created c. August 5, 1997. Last updated December 9, 2001. Next due for full update December 4, 2006.

URL: <http://turing.postilion.org/these-survive/regions/morocco.html>

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Copyright 1997-2001 Joe Bernstein. Electronic transfer permitted.