2.  MOROCCO
-----------

EXTENT
Morocco; Spanish region of Ceuta y Melilla.

SOURCES
Extremely infrequent notices in GREEK literature from c 300 BC on;
somewhat more frequent LATIN references from c 100 BC on.  Local
inscriptions (Latin, PHOENICIAN, LIBYAN, HEBREW) are scanty; no local
literature survives.  ARABIC references (concerning 7th century AD) date
to 8th century AD on, and are not local until still later.  For
inscriptions:
     <Inscriptions Antiques du Maroc.  Inscriptions Libyques. 
     Inscriptions Puniques et Neopuniques.  Inscriptions Hebraiques.> 
     Lionel Galand, James Fevrier, and Georges Vajda, respectively.  A
     volume of 'Publications de la Section Antiquite du Centre de
     Recherches sur l'Afrique Mediteraneenne'.  Paris: Editions du
     Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1966.
O    <Inscriptions Antiques du Maroc.  Inscriptions Latines.>  Maurice
     Euzennat and Jean Marion.  A volume of 'Etudes d'antiquites
     africaines'. Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche
     Scientifique, 1982.
     "Pour un <Corpus des inscriptions latines du Maroc>".  M. Lenoir.  In
     <Bulletin d'Archeologie Marocaine> (Rabat), 1983/84, 15: 225-280.
     Detailed review of volume 2, with reference to detailed review of
     preceding volume.
For archaeology, see various articles subtitled or titled "Contribution
a l'Atlas Archeologique du Maroc" in the same <Bulletin>, and also the
references below.
     Historians have agreed that a history of ancient Morocco could not
be written, though they overstated the case.  Work is done mainly in
French, also in Arabic and several Western languages.  I've found no
satisfactory account in any Western language of what *is* known, though
Arabic may offer better.  This entry is therefore unusually long, and
relies on guesswork more than I like.  Please notify me of anything I
can do to improve it.

PERIODISATION AND TERMS
By 600 BC, but probably not before 800 BC, Phoenicians had founded towns
on the coasts:  mainly Ligs (Latin Lixus, modern Larache), also at
modern Mogador and perhaps Tangier (Latin Tingis) and Kenitra (Latin
Thamusida). From c 500 BC to 204 BC, CARTHAGE apparently dominated these
and founded more: modern Melilla; perhaps modern Ceuta (Latin Septem),
Tetuan (Latin Tamuda), Sale (Latin Sala), and Latin Volubilis (near
Meknes).  Also, a document purporting to be a record of Carthaginian
settlement down the Atlantic coast, possibly beyond the Sahara, exists: 
the <Periplus> of Hanno.
     In the hinterland, the Mauri, first mentioned c 400 BC, emerged as
players in the Third Punic and the Jugurthine wars, 2nd century BC, if
not earlier. King Bocchus of MAURETANIA (ruled from before 110 BC to
after 92 BC) annexed western ALGERIA in 105 BC, but his successors split
the two territories again, with the border at the Moulouya River.  In 38
BC the regions were reunited. Soon after AD 40, ROME annexed them.
     The new provinces were Mauretania Tingitana and (west of the
Moulouya, for which cf. Algeria) Mauretania Caesariensis.  Tingitana
rebelled upon annexation, and several times in the 2nd century AD
(historians disagree about when). Whether it ever Romanised much is
controversial.  The capital was Tingis and/or Volubilis.  Rome abandoned
the latter and most of the country around AD 285; the remainder became
part of the diocese Hispaniae.   The VANDALS' passage in AD 429 wiped
out that Roman remnant.  Subsequent local kingdoms - perhaps at
Volubilis, certainly at Alteva just across the Algerian border - seem to
have been Romanised Berber in character, and usually Christian.  In AD
544, the Romans retook Septem from the VISIGOTHS (whose arrival there is
not recorded); the Visigoths got back there sometime before AD 700. 
Invaders from the Muslim UMAYYAD Caliphate began reaching the area c AD
681; conquest came shortly after AD 708.
     Summary:
Phoenician                      ?   - 500 BC
Punic                           500 - 204 BC
Mauretanian                     204 BC - AD 40
All three periods are often referred to together as "Punic", and in fact
published information on non-Phoenician people in the millennium before
204 BC is scanty.
Roman                           AD 40 - 429
(Romanised) Berber              AD 285 - 708

INTRODUCTORY
The above may well be the fullest account specific to Morocco in
English, which is precisely why I made it so full.  For any further
introduction you'll have to go to broader histories and glean what
little relates to this region.  The following three works in French are
inadequate; each has unique virtues, but each also has significant
flaws, none includes even all the information given above (though one
comes close), and two are not even reviewed anywhere to my knowledge. 
They are nevertheless listed because none of the three is widely
available.
     <De l'Empire romain aux Villes imperiales.  6000 ans d'art au
     Maroc.> Also titled <Min al-Imbaraturiyah al-Rumaniyah
     ila-al-'awasim al-'atiqah. Sittat alaf sanah min al-funun
     bi-al-Maghrib>, though none of the text is in Arabic.  Ed.
     anonymously [by Abdelaziz Touri, Bruno Racine, et alii??]. Paris: 
     Musee du Petit Palais, 1990.  Much the best of these three, and 
     covers nearly everything above; strong bibliography (though 
     little guidance); but it's an exhibition catalogue, and sections 
     on anything other than art history are simply far too short.  
     Still, if that's its only fault, it's much the best place to 
     start, if you can.  Roughly half the book (over 200 pp., 
     including pictures) is concerned with the period from 1000 BC 
     to AD 700.
* -  <Le Maroc Saharien des origines au XVIe Siecle.>  D. Jacques-
     Meunie. [Paris]: Librairie Klinksieck, 1982.  Pages 159 to 198 
     cover the ancient period.  Half of this space is devoted to 
     religious history.  Fully footnoted.  The account nevertheless 
     lacks detail, and appears to be rather more outdated than 
     publication date implies.  Archaeology is used scantily and in
     an old-fashioned way.
* -  <Le Memorial du Maroc.  Volume 1:  - 660:  Naissance d'un foyer du
     civilisation>. Larbi Essakali, editor.  [Rabat?]: Nord
     Organisation, 1983.  Archaeology and history are well-integrated in
     this (the only book-length treatment since 1943?), and the whole
     period is covered.  But the book is poorly organised, and although
     it's much more detailed than the other two, it's padded with
     information from elsewhere in the Maghreb and *still* doesn't cover
     everything above.  Worse, there are no references, notes,
     bibliography, citations, or other means of verifying statements
     made; and Essakali's appendix, which marshals every possible angle
     of pseudo-history to show that ancient Moroccans discovered
     America, sharply diminishes my confidence in the rest of the book.
     Probably preferable overall to Jacques-Meunie, but not by much.

RESEARCH
The situation here is better thanks to occasional scholarly papers.
However, these papers are not necessarily reliable, and of course
reviews of them are generally unavailable.  For items subsequent to
those listed here, see primarily <Antiquites africaines> (Paris) and
secondarily <L'Africa Romana> (Sassari, Sardinia; for a typical year's
citation see below).
     For the (broadly understood) 'Punic' period I can recommend nothing
whole-heartedly.  Most especially, archaeology of the immediate
pre-Phoenician era is invisible in secondary literature; and no recent
review of the Phoenician, (narrow) Punic, *or* Mauretanian periods
exists, where 'recent' means 'after general acceptance of
dendrochronological calibration of radiocarbon dates'. Since most
evidence for these periods is archaeological, this is a real problem.
That said, the most promising-looking item (though I haven't seen it)
is:
O    <Mauritania Tingitana.  De mercado colonial Punico a provincia
     periferica romana>.  Fernando Lopez Pardo.  Thesis at Universidad
     Complutense de Madrid, 1987; 684 pages.
It is apparently reviewed in
O    <Gerion> (Madrid), article by Wagner, 1988, 6: 310-314.
Meanwhile, of what I have seen, I recommend you begin with
*    <Lixus.  Actes du colloque organisee par l'Institut des sciences de
     l'archeologie et du patrimonie de Rabat avec le concours de l'Ecole
     francaise de Rome.  Larache, 8-11 novembre 1989>.  Ed. anonymously
     [by Joudia Hassar Benslimane?].  No. 166 of 'Collection de l'Ecole
     Francaise de Rome'.  Palais Farnese[, Rome]: Ecole Francaise de
     Rome, 1992. The papers all focus on Lixus, but range widely 
     otherwise in topics and so are probably the best bet for 
     bibliography on a specific area.
For a connected account, however, see (with much allowance for
obsolescence by later work and much caution on chronology):
-    <Marruecos Punico>.  M. Tarradell.  A volume in 'Historia de
     Marruecos', and in 'Publicaciones de la Facultad de Letras,
     Universidad de Rabat, Instituto Muley el-Hasan'.  Tetuan: Editorial
     Cremades, 1960.
It would also be worthwhile to consult the corresponding reference on
ALGERIA.
     The literature on Hanno is fairly large and quite disjunct, as
witness the significantly different views taken in three recent
important reference works, which rely on references that don't much
overlap.  (Detailed citations at bottom.)

For Roman times matters are somewhat better. Narrowly focused papers
appear in nearly every annual volume of <Antiquites africaines>. The
following papers, which I have not seen, may be better, because more
recent, than the ones I have:
O *  "Rome et les tribus indigenes en Mauretanie Tingitane".  Michel
     Christol. In <L'Africa Romana.  Atti del V Convegno di studio. 
     Sassari, 11-13 dicembre 1987>, ed. Attilio Mastino.  Sassari: 
     Pubblicazioni del Dipartimento di Storia dell'Universita degli
     Studi di Sassari IX.
O * "Geographie et administration de la Mauretanie Tingitane". 
     Christine Hamdoune.  In <L'Information historique> (Paris), 1991,
     53: 127-133.
Meanwhile, for the Roman period, consult first
-    "The Romans and the indigenous tribes of Mauritania Tingitana".  Marlene
     C. Sigman.  In <Historia> (Wiesbaden), 1977, 26: 415-439.  A connected
     account, such as there can be.
But then promptly read
     "Rome et la Mauretanie Tingitane:  un constat d'echec?".  Edmond Frezouls.
     In <Antiquites africaines>, 1980, 16: 65-93.  This not only provides a
     commented bibliographic update for the preceding decade or so, but is
     a vehement critique of several unsupported claims Sigman makes.

Finally, for the Berber era see
     "Rex Gentium Maurorum et Romanorum:  recherches sur les royaumes de
     Mauretanie des VI et VII siecles".  Gabriel Camps.  In <Antiquites
     africaines>, 1984, 20: 183-218.  A thorough and detailed synthesis of
     the extremely scanty evidence.

Created c. August 5, 1997.  Last updated October 16, 1997.  Next due for
full update August 5, 2002.

Reviewed by mena-h (but without any comments received).

URL: <http://turing.postilion.org/these-survive/regions/morocco.txt> 

Copyright 1997 Joe Bernstein.  Electronic transfer permitted.

PS

Detailed citations on Hanno.  The first two rely on Desanges and Jodin,
to differing degrees; the third, on Blomqvist, who is not even cited by
the first two.  Nor does the third cite Desanges or Jodin.

"Phoenicia and Phoenician colonization".  W. Culican.  "Lightly revised
by" C. B. F. Walker.  In <The Cambridge Ancient History.  Second
Edition.  Volume III.  Part 2.  The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and
other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries
B.C.>, John Boardman et al., editors, Cambridge etc.: Cambridge
University Press, 1991, pages 461-546.  (See specifically pages 543-545.
 Note that W. Culican died in 1984.)

"The Phoenicians".  Edward Lipinski.  In <Civilizations of the Ancient
Near East. Volume II>, Jack M. Sasson, editor in chief, New York etc.:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995, pages 1321-1333.  (See specifically pages
1330-1333.)

"Hanno (1)".  Nicholas Purcell.  In <The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 
Third Edition>, Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, editors, Oxford
and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, page 666.