soc.culture.greek,soc.culture.russian,alt.religion.christian.east-orthodox,soc.history.early-modern,alt.help.with.homework,relcom.politics,grk.news grep -nA1 '\#\@\#' ~/byz/byzhst.txt | sed '/--/ d'| sed '/#@#/ d' > byzhst.idx #@# Sourcebook for a Modern Byzantine Macro-Byzantine Historiographical Distillation Modern Ivy Byzantine Encyclios Paideia Epitome #@# TABLE OF CONTENTS BY LINE NUMBER (Line numbers approximate as inserting index below disturbs the numbers) #@# 171- Egypt, Greece, Rome, Freeman Oxford 1996 ISBN0-19-872194-3 674- Phoenicians & West Aubet trTurton Cambridge ISBN 0 521 41141 6 766- Podhoretz, Prophets, Free Press, 2002 ISBN 0-7432-1927-9 889- Basic Judaism Steinberg 1947..75 Harvest 0-15-61069801 1017- Gospel acc Moses, Athol Dickson ISBN 0-7394-3550-7 brazospress.com 1053- GOD 101 Rabbi Terry Bookman ISBN 0-399-526258-7 2000 1143- Eidelberg Judaic_Man ISBN0-391-03970-9 1996 p104 1184- Jewish Customs, Bloch, Ktav 1980 1196- Jacobs, Holy Living: saints &saintliness in Judaism ISBN 0-87668-822-9 1212- Vox Graeca Guide Pronunc Classical Greek Wm Sydney Allen Cambrigde 1272- SEPTUAGINT LAMENTATIONS GREEK HEBREW INTERPRONOUNCIATION 1296- Pronounciation of Greek and Latin Edgar Sturtevant (Yale) 1920..1940 1318- Warren Treadgold, Hist_Byz_State&Society, sup.org 1997 1613- H A Gribb Mohammedanism Cumberledge (Oxford '49 '54) p31 " And 1619- 7Essays on Christian Greece, Demetrios Bikelas, Garnder, Paisley, 1890 1665- Byzantine Christianity, Magoulias, Rand McNally 1970 1684- Obolensky [Oxford], ByzCommonwealth, svots.edu 1982 orig 1979- Iorga Byzantium After Byzantium ISBN 973-9432-09-3 2051- Byzantine Achievement, Robert Byron, Russell, 1964 [orig 1929] 2179- Charanis [Rutgers], Stud Demogr Byz Emp, London, 1972 2348- Kazhdan, Ch Byz Cult 11&12c 1985 ucal 2354- Kazhdan 1982 DumbOak ISBN 0-88402-103-3 2393- Alan Harvey Eco Exp Byz Emp Cambridge 1989 ISBN 0-521-37151-1 2408- Constantelos Christian Hellenisnm ISBN 0-89241-523-1 caratzas.com 2503- John Meyendorf, Byzantium & Rise of Russia, Cambridge, 1980 repr 2660- "Were Ancient Heresies National or Social Movements in Disguise", A 2759- Islam & Oriental Churches, Wm Ambr Shedd, Young Peoples Missionary 2792- Robinsom Claremone Nag Hammadi Henrickson 1986 ISBN0-913573-16-7 2824- Antioch Downey Princeton 1961 [heavily refs Malalas] 2870- Brock&Harvey Holy Women Syr Orient UCal 1987 ISBN 0-520-05705-8 2922- Mircea Eliade HistReligIdeas 1985 Chicago ISBN 0-226-20404-9 3005- Schmemann HistRdEOrth svots.edu 1977 (1963 Holt, tr L Kesich) 3722- Vladmir Lossky, Myst Theology, StVlad 1976 (1944) ISBN 0-913836-31-1 3792- Florovsky EaFath4c (v7 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsansalt FL9490 1987 ISBN 4068- Florovsky AspChHist (v4 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsanstalt FL9490 1987 4240- St Isaac Nineveh, Ascetic Life, St Vlad, ISBN 88141-077-2: 4289- Columbia Hist World Harper 1972 ISBN 0-88029-004-8 [foreword by 4616- Columbia Hist Wst Philos 1999 ISBN1-56731-347-7 4850- Zizioulas, Being as Communion, StVlad, 1985, ISBN 0-88141-029-2 4924- Cavarnos ModGrkThough 1986 1969 0-914744-11-9 4987- Conley Rhet Eur Trad 1990 0-226-11489-9 5044- Kennedy Hist Class Rhet 1994 Princeton 0-691-00059-x 5072- Pelikan Divine Rhetoric 2001 0-88141-214-7 5156- College Manual Rhetoric, Charles Sears Baldwin (Yale) Longmans 1906 5229- Perelman New Rhetoric 1958 Notre Dame 1969 0-268-00446-3 5375- Diplmcy (Negoc Souverains) Callieres 1647-1717 1983 Leicstr 0718512162 5589- Pers Self Portr Oldham & Morris 1990 Bantam 0-553-05757-X 5662- 48 Laws of Power, Rbt Greene & Elffers 1998 Viking 0670881465 6014- Adcock Greek Art War1957 UCal 0-520-0005-6 6070- Handel, Masters of War, 2001, 3ed, frankcass.com 0-7146-8132-6 6188- Thry Intl Pol Waltz (Harvard,Berkeley) 1979 MGH 0-07-554852-6 6265- Keohane&Nye(Harvard) Power&Interdep 2ed 1989 ScottForsmn 0-673-39891-9 6384- Strateg Tht Am 1952-1996 Trachtenberg PSQ 104#2 1989 6423- Conv Deter & Conv Retal in Eur Huntington Intl Scty 8#3 Wtr83-4 6459- Clash Civ Huntington Frn Aff Smr 1993 6511- How Countries Democratize Huntngton PSQ 106#4 1991 6564- IntroArts Collins 1969 Columbia 6685- Theol Icon Ouspensky trGythiel 1978 svots.edu 0-88141-124-8 6727- Music W Civ P H Lang (Columbia) Norton 1997 1941 0-393-04074-7 7190- Wm Ted deBary E Asian Civ Harvard1988 0-674-22405-1 7244- Solomon, Chinese Negotiating Behavior 1-878379-86-0 7250- Arayama & Mourdoukoutas China Against Herself 1999 1-56720-245-4 7265- Jaspers Philos&World 1963 Regnery 0-89526-757-8 7316- Dilworth, Philosophy in World Perspective, Yale, 1989, ad_passitum 7382- Massie, Land of Firebird, Touchstone, 1980 ISBN 0-671-46059-5 7613- Florinsky (Columbia),Russia, Macmillan 1953 8082- Imperial Russia, 1998, ed Burbank, indiana.edu, 0-253-33462-4 8154- NY Times 1Feb1892 Serfdom Again in Russia p1 8168- NY TImes 2Apr1877 Socialistic Spectre of Europe p4 8193- Atkinson, EndRuLandCommune Stanford 1983 8315- Peasant19cRu Vicinich Stanford 1968 8394- Redfield Peasant Society 1956 Chicago LC56-6654 8449- Keyes Peasant Strategies in Asian Societies JAsnStd 8/83 42#4 8474- Edral&Whiten [St Andr Scot] Human Egalitarianism Curr_Anthro 35#2 1994 8500- Macey Govt&PeasRu 1861-1906 1987 ISBN 0-87580-122-6 8552- Moral Economy Peasant J C Scott 1976 Yale ISBN 0-300-01862-2 8684- NY Times 2Jul1876 Russian Village Commune p4 8712- Soil & Soul Hellberg-Hirn Ashgate 1998 ISBN 1-85521-871-2 8789- Russia & Soul Pesmen Cornell 2000 ISBN 0-8014-3739-3 8803- Nomads & Sedentary Castillo 1981 ISBN 968-12-0109-4 8835- Rancour-laFerriere Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and Cult 8875- Russia 1812-1945, Graham Stephenson, Praeger 1969 8986- Russian Negotiationg Behavior, Schecter, 1-878379-78X 8998- Randall, Reluctant Capitalists: Russia..Transition 0-415-92824-9 9021- Weber ProtestantEth&SpirCaptlsm 1904..30 trTalcParsons 0-415-25406-x 9085- van den Haag Capitalism:Src Hostlty 1979 Epoch 0-89948-000-4 9130- Mises Bureaucracy Yale 1944 Arlington 1969 87000-068-3 9153- Bastiat Law 1848 Dean Russell FEE 1950 9177- Sowell Knowledge & Decisions 1980 Basic 0-465-03737-2 9401- Bickel, Morality_of_Consent,Yale,1975 9446- Chas Beard PSQ 27#1 3/12 Supreme Court - Usurper or Grantee? 9514- Dollar&PlcyMix, Mundell, Princtn Ess Inl Fnc 85, 5/1971 LC750-165467 9549- Ottoman Centuries, Kinross, 1977, isbn 0-688-08093-6 9867- Charlemont in Greece & Turkey 1749 Trigraph London ISBN 0-9508026-5-4 9943- Biddle [later Bank of US prez], Greece 1806, ed McNeal, PennStateU 1993 10098- Mod Greece Woodhouse Praeger/Faber 1968..91 10650- Gerolymatos Red Acropolis Black Teror 2004 ISBN 0-465-02743-1 10714- NYTimes 24Mar1974 Greece's Worst Crisis p220 10731- Pettifer, New Macedonia question, St Martin's 1999 ISBN0-312-22240-8 10810- Yugosl Communism&Maced Question Palmer & King(US dipl)208-00821-7 1971 10825- NY Times 24Feb1878 Russo-Turkish Treaty p1 10842- Raphael Patai, The_Arab_Mind, hatherleighpress.com 2002,1983,1976 10907- Trifkovic, Sword of Prophet, ReginaOrthodoxPress.com,2002 11121- Sproul & Saleeb, Dark Side of Islam 2003 IBN 1-58134-441-4 11135- Mohammed 1902 Margolith Putnam 11148- Musl W Eur Nielsen Edinburgh 2004 3ed 11162- Tsugitaka Muslim SOc 2004 ISBN 0-415-33254-0 11214- Luke & Keith-Roach Hbk Palestine & Transjordan 1930 Macmillan 11236- Russia & Mediterranean 1797-1807 Norman E Saul Chicago 1970 SBN 11355- Nesselrode & Rus Rappr w Britain, Ingle, California, 1976, 11409- 1983 Thessaloniki Inst Balk Stud "Les Relations Greco-Russes 11434- A J P Taylor, From_Napoleon_to_the_Second_International (Essays on 11498- Disraeli, Andre Maurois (aka Emile Herzog) trMiles 1928 LC55-14913 11757- Fischer Albion's Seed 1989 Oxford 0-19-506905-6 11868- Soc Darwinism Am Thought Hofstadter 1944 1955 Beacon 0807054615 11935- Lincoln's Vitures Wm Lee Miller 2003 Knopf 0-375-40158-x 12017- Kagan Origins War Prsvn Peace 1995 ISBN 0-385-42374-8 12059-Thos Andr Bailey (Stanford) Dilp_Hist_Am_People (9ed=1974) PrenticeHall 12110- 70yrs Panslavism Russia 1800-1870, Frank Fadner, Georgetown, 1962 12152- Panslavism, Kohn, Notre Dame, 1953 12171- Petrovich Panslavism Columbia 1956 12218- Tschizeskij Ru Intlx Hst trOsborne Ardis AnnArbor 1978 12239- Russian Thinkers Isaiah Berlin 194..1948 penguin.com 0-14-013625-8 12332- Kaplan Arabists 1995 FP ISBM 0-02-874023-8 12451- Rose, Origins of the War, Putnam Knickerbocker, 1915 12463- NY Times 11Dec1917 p13 "Says Germans Aided Armenian Killings" 12477- Vahakh Dadrian German Responsibility Arm Genocide 1996 12526- May 23, 1943, Goebbels Diaries, Lochner, Doubleday, 1948 " A report 12535- Peacemakers (aka Paris 1919) Margaret Mac Millan, 12625- NY Times 22Aug1920 Red Troops Form Link With Kemal p1 12633- NY Times 25 Nov 1920 Kemal and Soviet Plan Free Islam p17 12650- TURKS ARE EVICTING NATIVE CHRISTIANS NY TIMES 12jun15 p4 12657- German Directed the Turks at Van NY Times 6oct15 p3 12668- NY Times 14Nov1915 Bulgaria to become Catholic? p2 12677- NYTimes 10Dec1921 Metaxakis ELected Patriarch p4 12702- NY Times 11Jan1923 Millions Must Quit Homes Near East p1 Edwin L James 12735- NY Times 20May1927 Athos Become Monastic Republic 12743- NY Times 10May1925 Tikhon to Have Successor Unless Sov Prevents x11 12751- NY Times 17Jan1921 Reds Convert Refugees p3 12755- NY Times 8Jun1921 Soviet-Turk Plot nipped by British p15 12768- NY Times 11Nov1919 Kemal, Rebel Turk Leader, Proposes Alli w Lenin,p1 12775- 13Sep34 NYTimes Venizelos's Threat Saloniki Stirs Colony 12783- Kondylis Backs Greek Jews NY Times 19Oct35 p8 12789- GREEK CHILDREN FACE STARVATION NY TIMES 21Sep1941 12796- GREECE INVADED 2 YRS AGO NYTimes 28OCT42 p8 12802- GREEKS' EXTINCTION BY FAMINE FEARED NY TImes 27May 1942 p19 12809- The Many Lives of Moses Hadas Columbia alum mag Fall/2001 12841- Catholic Intlxl&ConservtvPolAm1950-85 Allitt (Emory) 1993 Cornell ISBN 12897- Story of Qumran: How Not to Do Archaeology, PR Davies, Bibl Arch 12/88 12912- Diane Ravitch Revionists Revised 0-645-06943-6 12921- Diane Ravitz 2000 Left Back S&S 0-684-84417-6 12941- Kornich (CUNY), Underachievement, ChasThomas SpfdIl 1965 LC65-16650 13037- 20% Dropout Rate Found For Italian-Americans May 1, 1990 B4 NY Times 13056- Religious Pref & Worldly Success Mayer&Sharp AmSocRvu 25#2 (4/62) 13071- Lehrer Religion as Det Edu Attainment Soc Sci Rsc 28 1999 13077- Soros by Kaufman 0-375-40585-2 13107- Surely You're Joking Mr Feynman Norton 1985 393-01921-7 13190- Condi,Felix, 2005 Newmarket 1-55704-675-1 13213- Feinstein & Symons Attainment 2'school Oxf Eco Ppr 4/99 51#2 13220- 1st3yrChild Karl Konig Floris2004 FrGstlbnStuttgt1957 ISBN0-86315-452-2 13291- Grosjean, Life w2 Lang Harvard 1982 0-674-53091-8 13363- LITURGICAL MISTRANSLNS BY BP ISAIAH DENVER TheChristianActivist.com v9 13381- Barry Farber How Learn Any Lang MJF 1991 1-56731-543-7 13409- Nathan Glazer in New Biling USC 5/80 ed M Ridge Transxn 0-88474-104-4 13432- Sowell, Ethnic America, 1981 Basic ISBN 0-465-02074-7 13503- Cordell Warlds & Enslavmt in Lovejoy Afr Bndg 1986 Wisc 0-299-97020-5 13524- Peter Te Yuan Hao 17FEB1955 NYU Ed D dissertation "J2895JAn1355" 13534- Out of the Barrio - Linda Chavez - 1991 Basic/Harper 0-465-05430-7 13601- Glazer & Moynihan Beond Melt Pot MIT 1963 13664- Irving Howe 1976 World of Our Fathers 0-15-146353-0 13724- Kolesnik & Power, Catholic Education, MGH 1965 LC 65-20975 13775- Sayre (Columbia) & Kaufman (Yale) Governing NYC Russell Sage 1960 14149- Ungovernable City Yates (Yale) 1977 MIT 0-262-74013-3 14181- Bullock, Hitler&Stalin 1993 ISBN 0-679-72994-1 14359- Perret 1999 Eisenhower ISBN 0-375-50046-4 14462- Unholy Trinity [aka Ratlines] Aarons & Loftus St Martins 1998 14608- Lenczowski SovPersUSFrnPol Cornell 1982 14738- Conservatism as an Ideology Huntington Am Pol Sci Rvu 51#2 1957 14752- ModTimes 20s-80s PlJohnson Harper 1983 ISBN0-06-015159-5 15204- Faith for a Lifetime, Abp Iakovos ISBN 0-385-19595-8 15232- Ethno-Genetic Abstracts 15549- Human Migrations (Years Ago) 15556-Language Trees #@# Egypt, Greece, Rome, Freeman Oxford 1996 ISBN0-19-872194-3 [Grgrgrandson of Archdeacon of Exeter] p14 water for its irrigation came down the Nile in annual floods, most of which originated in summer rains in the Ethiopian maountains. With the floods came silt, and the combination of fertile soil and ready water could produce yields of crops three to four times those from normal rain-fed soil p25 dead man would no longer be judged on his relationship with the king but on his own p31 influx of migrants from Palestine, which was enjoying a period of particular prosperity..called them Hyskos, literatlly 'chiefs of foreign lands'.. take over Memphis.. allied themselves with the Nubians in the far south and they were thus able to reduce the territory of the Egyptian kings to the land around Thebes p37 Thuthmose III, the most successful conqueror of Asia, initiated a policy of bringing back Palestinian princes to Egypt as hostages for the good behaviour of their home cities.. Asiatic gods p40 Religious belief was so deeply embedded in the Egyptian world picture that Akhenaten was, in effect, challenging the intellectual structure.. temples were closed down and their goods were confiscated. The economic structure of the state was upset as lands were transferred direct to the king p43 Ramses is remembered because of the vast building programme he carried out during his reign. Nearly half of the temples which still stand p49 Homer wrote in the Odyssey that medicine in Egypt was more developed than anywhere in the world, and Herodotus, writing some three centuries later, agreed with him.. doctor who followed a text exactly would not be blamed if the patient died, but if he disregarded it and the patient suffered he could even be sentenced to death p55 Osiris, who presided over the trial which decided his future in the afterlife.. forty-two judges.. not killed or stolen, committed adultery, or had sex with a boy. He must never have insulted the king, tresspassed, damaged a grain measure, or harmed the neighbours' land. At the end of the trial the heart.. weighed against a feather. If it was too heavily weighed.. devoured by a monstrous.. no possibility of an afterlife without a preserved body p56 obsessive fear that the deceased might demean his status by having to engage in physical labour, and it became the custom to enclose small figures, the shabtis, as a model labour force p57 stability was, in fact, maintained by occupying and feeding the many peasants who worked on the great building projects during the months of the floods p63 earliest recorded epic, that of Gilgamesh, a warrior king.. first of antagonism and then of comradeship, of Gilgamesh and a wild creature.. Among the stories recorded is that of a great flood.. Parallels have been drawn between its opening sentence and that of the Odyssey p64 Babylonian society allowed more freedom of enterprise than of Sumer. Trade was conducted by individuals rather than the state and landowners were free to exploit their land p65 By the thirteenth century BC the writers of Ugarit were using only twenty-two consonants. At some point (scholars have put forward dates as early as 1300 BC and as late as 1000 BC), the Phoenician cities developed their own alphabet, and probably transmitted it to the Greeks in the ninth or eighth century BC p69 Genesis, which has parallels with a similar account in the Babylonian epic Enuma_Elish. In both myths God (Yahweh) fashions the world from a primordial abys and his work of creation lasts six days after which he rests on the seventh. The story of the flood is, as has already been said, Sumerian in origin. The Garden of Eden seems rooted in a Near Easyern tradition, probably Mesopotamian, of an idyllic garden from which rivers flow. The theme of the righteous sufferer found in the book of Job, perhaps the most profound and penetrating book of the Hebrew scriptures, is paralleled by similar stories in Babylonian literature p73 Greek mercenaries soon formed part of the Egyptian army (together with Phoenicians, Syrians, and Jews, many of whom where refugees from the Assyrian conquests). A thousand kilometers up the Nile some of their signatures have been found inscribed on the leg of a colossal statue of Ramses II p74 united them under Persian rule. With Median troops and the rich pasturelands of the Zagros mountains under his control, he could now expand.. uncontrollable that it was impossible to impose authoritarian rule. Part of Cyrus' genius was to recognize this, and so long as the ultimate source of authority of himself as King of Kings and the Persian god Ahura-Mazda were recognized p78 In Egypt, there are tomb paintings of Cretans bringing cloth as tribute, while Minoan pottery is found not only in Egypt but also along the Syro-Palestine coast p81 Greek entered Greece with invaders from the east about 2000 BC p83 trading routes on which they depended may have been disrupted by the Sea Peoples.. legend, preserved by the later Greeks, that Mycenaean civilization had been destroyed by invaders from the north-west, the Dorians p84 tenth century there appears to have been a migration of Ionic speakers to Asia Minor, where they colonized the central part of the coast, a region later known as Ionia. From the plains of Boetia and Thessaly another dialect, Aeolic, appears to have spread to the northern coastline of Asia Minor p93 Cronos himself fathers the Olympian gods, who under the leadership of Zeus have to do battle with the Titans, children of Uranus and Gaia, before they can reign supreme p97 far easier to cross the Aegean from west to east than to cross mainland Greece from east to west across the [Alpine] Pindus mountains.. For the Greeks, whose lives were always frugal and where a surplus had to be painfully won from the land, the east offered a glittering lure.. best Greek harbours are on the east coast p103 final result was to establish a Greek presence in the Mediterranean from the Black Sea in the northeast to the coast of modern France and Spain in the west. The catalyst was almost certainly population increase in mainland Greece p104 Sometimes, as in the case of Thera, each family with more than one son was ordered to provide one of them for the colony, certainly the fairest way of dealing with land shortage and a good indication of the well-established authority of the polis by the late seventh century p108 Greek goods have been found far up the river valleys in the Russian interior and Scythian art, like Etruscan, becomes heavily influenced by that of Greece. One Scythian king, Scyles, adopted a Greek lifestyle so enthusiastically that he wa skilled by his own people when seen participating in Dionysiac revels p122 word the Spartans used of themselves, homoioi, 'those who are similar'. Uniformity was imposed upon them by fear, the continuous threat of revolt by those they had subjugated. The Sparta state became heavily militarized.. such a paranoic society should gradually isolate p128 destroying the priveleged position..debt ownership were abolished, and Solon even claims that he searched overseas for Athenians who had been sold abroad. The payment of a part of any produce also ended.. opening up of government to a wider class of citizens.. Lesser offices were open to the next two classes, but the thetes were excluded from office. They had to wait another hundred years, when the desparate need to use them as rowers in the expanding Athenian navy p156 conclusions about the differences between free and unfree states and the consequences of unrestricted pride. The Greeks, with their simple life, co-operative political arrangements, and belief in liberty, are, in Herodotus' eyes, superior, and this explains their success p165 condemn an opponent as having pro-Persian, often merely aristocratic, sympathies and was a political rallying cry for decades to come p184 young boy's initiation.. sexual element of the relationship appears to have been restrained, and may not have involved any actual penetration.. substitute for women by older men who had not yet reached the age of marriage.. family would be vigilant to ensure he was not being abused.. For a Greek male to accept the submissive role in a homosexual relationship, or to be paid for this role, was considered so degrading that, in Athens at least, it resulted in the loss of citizen rights p205 most cases were heard by juries of ordinary citizens. A roll of 6,000 citizens was drawn up for each year and from these a jury was selected for each case. The more serious the case the larger the jury, with a maximum of 2,500.. between 5 and 6 per cent of citizens over the age of 30 would be required each year if all the posts of the Boule, the juries, and the administration were to be filled. With the ban on reselction for most posts, this meant that virtually everyone was involved in administration or government at some point in their lives. Even Socrates, who attempted to avoid political life completely, served his time on the Boule p212-3 some 150 subject states.. Poorer Athenians were often given preference in the allocation of places in these settlements. (Pericles' motives, claimed Plutarch, included the desire to rid the city of riff-raff.).. Athenian empire was in many cases a conservative and even defensive.. never the deliberate and ruthless exploitation of resources on the scale followed by later trading states such as Venice p222 It was Sophocles who introduced the powerful independent woman into tragedy, a revolutionary move in a city where women were kept largely in seclusion. Sophocles writes of an earlier archaic world, one of heroes where loyalties are to clans and kin rather than to a city. It is a cruel and inflexible one with the ways of the gods incomprehensible to man p224 Euripides' plays break through the conventions of tragedy by showing human beings alone and responsible for their own actions, however strongly they are controlled by emotional forces they cannot understand. p230 Plato's background was aristocratic.. humiliation of his native Athens at the hands of Sparta. The trial of Socrates appears to have marked a turning-point for him. Democracy for Plato was synonymous with mob rule p233 As Karl Popper has argued in his The_Open Society_and its_Enemies, Plato represents a direct threat to the democratic tradition, and any ruling elite which claims it has the right to impose its own ideals on society is his heir p237 in his Ethics Aristotle argues that goodness cannot be achieved through reason alone.. integrated framework of ethical behaviour.. account of 158 different constitutions, for instance. Insofar as he favoured one form of government it was democracy p241 Thucydides has no illusions about human behaviour. No one before and few after have detailed quite so vividly the appalling cruelty with which men can act when under stress p247 Sparta's inability to act with any kind of sensitivty [to this day!].. 382, when her troops were sent to intervene in civil unrest in her old enemy, Thebes. The city was simply seized, to the universal condemnation of the Greek world.. Seventy states, including Thebes, eventually joined what is known as the Second Athenian League (378-377).. It was to be Thebes, not Athens, who would humble Sparta p251 If Dionysius [Syracuse] had defeated Carthage, the history of the western Mediterranean might have taken a different turn. It would have left him free, for a start, to move into Italy.. 390 the Etruscans and Rome had both been overrun by Celtic.. p252 In his speech Jason [Thessaly] listed Macedonia, a monarchial state on his northern borders, as among his targets. Its timber would allow him to build a fleet.. Macedonia that was to do the conquering.. Pindus [Alp] Mountains, for instance, forming a natural barrier with Molossis (later Epirus).. Macedonian monarchy had shown remarkable survival skills. By the fourth century it was laready some 300 years old.. kings themselves claimed that their family was of [Argive] Greek origin p255 Demosthenes was leader of a democratic faction.. majestic defences of liberty.. hard to apportion blame.. Phillip was steadily moving towards Athens' interests p257 Isocrates (436-338 BC). In a recitation written for the Olympic Games of 380 he had argued that the only way to bring unity to the fragmented Greek world was to launch a national crusade under one leader against Persia.. power struggle for the Persian throne and both Egypt and Babylon were in rebellion p258 Alexander was aware of a heritage that took him back on his mother's side to Achilles and on his father's to Heracles.. tutor he had the most famous intellectual figure of the time, Aristotle.. self-confident, endlessly curious, and reckless p265 siege of Tyre suggested a lack of balance in Alexander's personality. He was beginning to see himself as something more than a human.. distance between Alexander and his commanders was becoming apparent. Darius, brooding on his defeat, now offered Alexander his empire to the west of the Euphrates and an enormous ransom for his family.. was set on the humiliation of Darius p267 eastwards his own position became less strong. His men had achieved victory beyond their wildest.. Parenion, one of Phillip's most seasoned commanders, who had consistently opposed what he saw as Alexander's recklessness, was also assassinated on Alexander's orders.. began to rely on local mercenaries.. Bactria and Sogdania, modern Pakistan and Afghanistan.. Hindu Kush were crossed in April 329 p268 As ever, Alexander showed his inventiveness and flexibility. His archers and javelin men came into their own against bands of nomadic tribesmen who circled the Macedonian armies. Even the most impregnable of citadels fell to his tactics.. 30,000 young men were taken to be taught Greek and trained for Alexander's Armies. Bactria was to become and remain an enclave of Greek culture for centuries to come.. king was not removed from his commanders - he ate and drank, often heavily, alongside them. The tradition of the Persian monarchy was very different p269 myths that both Heracles and Dionysus originated in India.. Indus RIver was crossed amidst great celebrations.. Taxila, whose motives appear to have been to use the Macedonians to defeat rival princes further east.. monsoons had now started. By the time the army had reached the River Beas it had endured seventy days of continuous heavy rainfall and was close to mutiny. For the first time in his life, Alexander accepted defeat. He claimed that a sacrifice has shown the gods did not want him to continue further and ordered the retreat. There was a jubilation in the ranks which Alexander was never to forgive p271 Opis, he announced that all Macedonians who were unfit for further service because of age or injury would be disbanded and allowed to return home.. seen as a gesture of rejection.. became increasingly absolutist.. proclaimed that all Greek exiles could return to their native cities.. disrupt their economies and political stability as the exiles returned p273 Alexander's immediate legacy was not, therefore, an empire. Rather it was a form of monarchy, based on absolute power, an aura of divinity, and conspicuous consumption. This was to be the model he bequeathed to the Hellenistic kings who succeeded him. For generations he became the archetype of the world emperor p274-5 Celts raided down into Greece in the early third century, sacking Delphi in 279, and it was only by confronting them in 277 that Antigonus Gonatas secured the kingdom of Macedonia for himself. Another Celtic people, the Galatians, settled in central Anatolia.. only two Seleucid monarchs survived to die in bed.. 'bread and circus' for the masses began in this period.. [Alexandria] library may have held nealry half a million books.. ambition of acquiring copies of every known text p279 Aetolian League in central Greece gained its cohesion from successful defence of the area against the Celts. After saving Delphi in 279 p292 Even in Judaea, the mountainous region around Jerusalem, a Greek education became popular.. Ptolemies were replaced by the Seleucids in 200.. much more intrusive.. humiliated by the Romans in 168.. eyes on the treasury of the great temple at Jerusalem.. dedicate the temple to Zeus (in 167), guerrilla warfare.. Judas Maccabaeus p294 Celtic groups spread widely across the continent..tribal groups living under the leadership of warrior elites.. Strabo, writing in the first century BC.. "frankness and high-spiritedness of their temperament must be added the traits od childish boastfulness and love of decoration.. vanity which makes them unbearable in victory and so completely downcast in defeat" p297 Parthian empire. Mithriades was a gifted ruler who was quick to exploit the position of his empire as a middleman between his two most powerful enemies, China in the east, and after the demise of the Seleucids, Rome in the west.. silk in return for the majestic horses provided by the Parthians.. Chinese were the only people who knew the secret of the moment when to destroy the larvae of the silkworm p305 Etruscan [Tyrrhenian, non Indo-Eur] supremacy along the coast came under threat from about 550 BC as new waves of Greeks fled from Persian expansion. The Phocaean colony at Alalia in eastern Corsica was particularly threatening. In 540 BC the Etruscans, with some Phoenician support, defeayed the Phocaeans at sea and forced the abandonment of the settlement, but the Phocaeans had also settled in southern France and they now blocked Etruscan trade there. Meanwhile the Carthaginians (Phoenicians who had established the city of Carthage and made it a springboard for further colonization) had consolidated their position in Sardinia and on the western coas of Sicily and gradually forced the Etruscans off the sea p309 Form the eighth through the end of the sixth century Rome.. not hereditary and each new king seems to have been acclaimed by the people of Rome meeting in the comitia_curiata, an assembly of thirty groups of clans.. symbol of imperium was the fasces, a bundle of rods bound round an axe p310 aristocracy were not necessarily anti-Etruscan.. protectors of Rome against tyranny.. intense suspicion of any individual who tried to use popular support to build personal power.. two magistrates, the consuls, who would hold power for one year but who could not be immediately re-elected p320 As the Phoenician coastal cities were overrun in the seventh century, in turn by Assyrians, Egyptians, and Persians, Carthage emerged as an independent city ideally suited to act as the focus for the commerce of the other former Phoenician colonies of western Mediterranean. Her dominance over them was gradually established. She expanded into north Africa, Spain, Sardinia, Siciily pp322-5 225 BC central Italy was faced with a Celtic invasion.. 218 when Italy was unexpectedly invaded from the north by a Carthaginian army led by Hannibal.. been energetically building a new empire in Spain..One of Rome's oldest allies, the city of Massilia [Marseilles], had clearly become concerned.. Hanibal had a tutor from Sparta.. hostile tribes harassing his men (and the elephants they brought with them) as they passed. Perhaps a third of his army was lost on the way.. Po plain, where the Celts rallied to Hannibal as their liberator.. Celts and Spaniards who were holding Hannibal's centre.. victory at Cannae now allowed Hannibal to consolidate his position in southern Italy.. Scipio.. victory at Ilipa.. war to Africa.. forced the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal.. Rome inherited her empire in Spain. In Sicily, Syracuse, who had joined the Carthaginians, had been taken and sacked by Romans in 212. The most notable casualty was the celebrated scientist Archimedes, whose ingenious war machines had delayed the city's capture p326-7 In 215 Hannibal had made an alliance with Philip V of Macedon. Rome had sent a small fleet to Greece but primarily used the Aetolian League (see p297), traditionally hostile to Macedon, to contain him.. When in 192, Antiochus agreed to support the Aetolian League and crossed with a small army to the Greek mainland, the Romans reacted vigorously. In 191 at Thermopylae he was easily defeated p330 In Italy the confiscation of land allowed the surplus population of Rome to be settled away from the city so that social tensions could be contained. In so far as the only obligation that Rome expected from her allies was the provision of men for war, her continuing supremacy over them also depended on frequent campaigns [Wm Harris, War&Imp_Repub_Rom 1979] p339 For the poorer citizen access to cheap grain was essential and Gaius [Gracchus] stabilized corn prices by instituting a system of bulk buying and storage for sale at a fixed price (thus protecting the poor from variations in the weather and the exploitation of speculators) p341 In 113 news came of two Germanic tribes, the Cimbri and Tuetones, who had embarked on a long and seemingly undirected migration from central Europe to France which intruded from time to time on Roman territory. Each time they met a Roman army they defeated it.. Marius' problem was the settlement of his troops. Those without land to return to could not simply be disbanded.. bitterly opposed by the senate.. never got their land.. exile, now a somewhat discredited figure. Once again violence had infiltrated the political system p347 Pompey's career had already shown that he would not be easy to control, but it was equally clear that he was one of the most able men in the state, energetic, ruthless when he needed to be, and with fine administrative skills.. massive uprising of slaves led by the Thracian gladiator Spartacus.. 70,000-strong force of slaves.. grisly row of 6,000 crucified slaves lining the road from Rome to Capua where the uprising had begun p359 republican by temprament, a believer in the ancient liberties of Rome, but had to admit, even in De Republica, that the breakdown of orer required a strongman to take control. (Cicero had Pompey in mind.) Cicero himself connot have been easy to live with. He could be fussy, self-pitying, and ambivalent in his loyalties. p363 Caesar had had to borrow a legion from Popmey's forces to replace it as well as to recruit two more from Cisalpine Gaul. Unrest among tribes in the north of Gaul had continued into 53 and then in 52 there had been a much more formidable revolt which had covered much of central and south-western Gaul. It had been led by Vercingetorix of the Averni, the first Celtic leader able to transcend tribal loyalties and unite the Celts in defence of their freedom p365 On 1 January 49 Caesar suggested in a letter to the senate that both he and Pompey should lay down their commands.. On 10 January 49 he crossed a small river, the Rubicon, which markd the boundary of Cisalpine Gaul within which hw could exercise imperium and the rest of Italy where he could no. He had, in effect, decalred war on the Republic p367 Pompey must have hoped for some support. However as he steped ashore he was murdered on the orders of the Egyptian authorities, who understood that Caesar was now the man to please.. jointly by a 21-year-old queen, Cleopatra, and her brother, the 15-year-old Ptolemy XII.. She was the first Hellenistic ruler of Egypt to have learnt the language (she knew nine altogether) and to have participated in Egyptian religious festivals p369 fact that he had won a civil war against fellow citizens was glossed over by allocating each triumph to a victory over foreigners, the Gauls, the Egyptians, Pharnaces, and king Juba of Numidia.. acquiring the aura of a Hellenistic monarch.. fair settlement of debts had been decreed in 48.. 80,000 citizens were persuaded to emigrate.. Citizenship was also granted to loyal provincial communities.. calendar.. was replaced on the advice of an Alexandrian astronomer, Sosigenes, by one of 365 days with one extra day added every four years. (This calendar lasted until it required further reform in the sixteenth century.).. increasing absolutist p371 Caesar accepted the idea of a temple dedicated to him and the appointment of Mark Antony as his flamen or priest. More provocative to the average Roman were the accumulation of honours and trapping which hinted of kingship. Here Caesar's behaviour was deeply ambiguous.. committed republicans such as Cassius and Brutus, the leaders, former supported of Pompey whom Caesar had forgiven, and others with more personal resentments. The secret was well kept. Caesar was due to attend a meeting of the senate in a great hall adjoining Pompey's theatre. One of the conspirators was delegated to throw himself at Caesar's feet with a petition, pulling Caesar's toga downwards so he could not defend himself. The others were then to stab him p372 Cicero emerged to preside over the reconciliation. However, when it was discovered that Caesar had left his gardens to the city and a sum of mony to each of its citizens, popular fury against the murderers grew and Brutus and Cassius were forced to leave Rome.. To his dismay Antony found that Caesar had adopted his 18-year-old nephew, Octavian.. Antony was indeed defeated in Cisalpine Gaul but both counsuls were killed and Octavian found himself commander of an army of eight legions. These he refused to give up and marched to Rome to demand and receive a consulship from the humiliated senate. He was aged 19.. November 43 they set up a triumvirate.. liquidation of the Republic was ratified by a meeting of the conscilium.. seize land in Italy to settle their large armies. A death list of 300 senators and 2,000 equestrians was drawn up. There was only one name of consular rank, Cicero. He hesitated over his escape and was caught in his litter and beheaded p374-5 murdering her younger brother and placing the 4-year-old Caesarion as co-ruler.. Antony, who, in contrast to the austere Caesar, had a weakness for opulence, succumbed. He spent the winter of 41 tp 40 with Cleopatra in Alexandria and she bore him twins.. In 39 Parthian forces invaded Syria and even entered Jerusalem. They were repulsed. Antony, who had sent Octavia home when she became pregnant and renewed his relationship with Cleopatra, now planned a major invasion of Partha.. Caesarion was declared the true heir of Caesar (an obvious affront to Octavian) and, with his mother, joint ruler of Egypt and Cyprus.. easy for Octavian to damn him as the plaything of a powerful woman who was corrupting Roman virtues with the decadence of the east.. Antony stabbed himself, while Cleopatra had herself bitten by an asp. Caesarion was later murdered. Egypt, the last of the great Hellenistic kingdoms, was now in the hands of Rome p385 Augustus' formal powers were rooted in republican precendent and there was the knowledge that they had been granted freely to him by the senate and the people of Rome. In combination and duration they extended beyond anything known in the Republic.. Wahtever the realities of his power, Augustus remained scrupulous in his dealings with senators.. An exception was Egypt.. personal conquet pp409-12 Stoic could be stern and unbending. The importance of Seneca is that he humanized.. power under Nero.. Gradually, however, Nero's activities became more sinister. In 59, eggend on by his mistress, Poppea, he decided to murder his mother.. immense psychological burden. Soon a reign of terror began.. Most formidable of all was a Jewish revolt, set of in 66 by the clumsy behaviour of a Greek governor, appointed under the influence of Poppea. A million died in the following years as it was suppressed.. With Nero fied the last of the Julio-Claudians.. outside the traditional noble families of Rome and make his way to power through sheer merit. Vespasian was not to disappoint. He was the first emperor since Augustus to maintain good relationships with those varied constituencies, the senate, the army, and the people of Rome. Although severe in tone and cautious with his spending, he also had a sound awareness of what the empire needed - the definition of boundaries, stable provincial government, and a widening of citizenship so that its subjects could be progressively drawn into loyalty. Nero's reign and the disruption of the year 69 had left the empire unsettled p416 He was assidious in intervening in the affairs of cities, settling disputes and telling them how to arrange their affairs.. Farmers could apply for loans from the imperial treasury at 5 percent interest (instead of the usual 12 per cent). The interest was then placed in a special account and used to pay for grain rations for the children of the poor. Trajan also proved to be the last great conqueror of the Roman empire p419 Hadrian is remembered above all as a builder.. Hadrian's Wall crossing northern Britain from seas to sea.. One consequence of Hadrian's continuous travels was that imperial decisionmaking was considered independently of the senate in Rome.. However, by Hadrian's reign it is clear that the emperor's decisions on matters brought to him directly were now also considered to have the force of law. Such decisions were known as rescripts and some of Hadrian's are quoted in Justinian's great Digest of Roman law p422-3 By the time Jerusalem was stormed by Titus in 70 the Romans may have inflicted a million casualties. Those insurgents who were captured alive were distributed as victims to the amphitheatres of the east.. second Jewish revolt in 132-5 was crushed with equal brutality.. earlier traditions of ruthlessness were not dead.. megalomaniac behaviour of Caligula and Nero against their subjects and the lives of Tiberius and Domitian also ended in reigns or terror. Non-citizens had no protection against the arbitrary decisions of magistrates and there is evidence that governors would order executions to appease local pressure groups (the trial and crucifixion of Jesus on the authority of Pontius Pilate can be viewed in this context) or simply to clear overcrowded gaols p463-4 For Edward Gibbon this represented the moment when the human race was more prosperous and contented than at any other time in history, and it was in Antoninius' reign that Aelius Aristides delivered his famous panegyric of Roman rule.. emergence of new, often expansionst, tribal groups. In the Black Seas area the Goths appear in the early third century.. Saratians, nomadic peoples of Asiatic origin, who had established themselves on the Hungarian plain.. Burgundians, emerged on the Elbe to thewest of the Vistula about the smae time as the home of the Oksywie culture became deserted. Similarly other Germanic tribes were drawn together as a confederation known as the Alamanni ('all men'), first attested in 213. The Franks emerged slightly later long the lower Rhine while the Saxons appear along the coast of the North Sea p477 In 293 Diocletian did this in characteristic fashion by sweeping away all vestiges of local currencies and replacing the devalued coins by a currency based on pure gold coins of 5.20 grams in weight with pure silver coins for lower denominations.. The Edict of Prices of 301 is a fascinating document. In it are listed the proposed maximum prices for a vast range of goods and the highest wages each type of craftsman and labourer should receive [Reagan citied this as first failure of price controls] p484 Jesus was brought up in Galilee, a northern region of Palestine. Galilee was governed not by the Romans but by a series of client kings, first, at the time of Jesus' birth around 5BC, Herod and then his son Herod Antipas p485 At one extreme the Sadducees, a wealthy and aristocratic group, with conservative religious and social ideas, were prepared to tolerate Roman rule as offering the best chance of their survival as an elite. They dominated the councils of Jerusalem. At the other extreme, there were those who were actually prepared to countenance armed rebellion against the Romans. In Jesus' time they were not a coordinated group but they were to come together as 'the Zealots' to launch the great Jewish revolt against Rome in AD 66. In between these extremes other sects such as the Pharisees concentrated on maintaining their religious principles intact without offering any open opposition to Roman rule p486-7 Its converts were mainly among Greek-speaking Jews.. synagogues in these large cosmopolitan cities traditionally attracted gentiles.. Jerusalem leaders, Peter and James, wedded to their Jewish background, insisted that Jesus was only for those who were cirumcised and who obeyed Jewish dietary laws.. Paul, a Greek-speaking Jew from Tarsus in Cilicia and a citizen of the empire.. Paul insisted that uncircumcised gentiles could become Christians and he argued his case against restrictive attitudes of the Jerusalem community with vigour. He only got his way when he agreed that his gentile churches would collect money for the church in Jerusalem. There followed broad agreement that the Jerusalem leaders would continue to preach to Jews while Paul would be leader of the mission to the gentiles.. Paul later told the Galatian Christians of a public row he had had with Peter in Antioch. Peter had been prepared at first to eat with gentiles but when joined by fellow Jewish Christians from Jerusalem withdrew p493 no supreme bishop, although those of larger cities, Jerusalem (in very early days), Antioch, Ephesus and Alexandria, claimed some form of pre-eminence in their region. In the second century these cities were affronted when Victor, bishop of Rome, tried unsuccessfully to impose the date of Easter p494 Middle Platonism began to permeate the writings of Christians p495 Logos was a concept developed by Greek philosophers (Stoics as well as Platonists) to describe the force of reason which, they argued, had come into being as part of creation. (It is often translated, rather unhelpfully, as 'the Word'.) Logos existed in human beings as the intellectual power with which they were able to understand the divine world so, in this sence, logos overlapped both the physical world and the divine. Hrist could be portrayed as logos created by God in human form and sent by him into the world to act as an intermediary between god and man p496 Accounts of trials show that it was not so much what Christians believed that worried local governors as their refusal to honour traditional gods p512 Some extremists, such as the Egyptian Hierakas, even doubted that married couples who had enjoyed the sexual act would be admitted to heaven #@# Phoenicians & West Aubet trTurton Cambridge ISBN 0 521 41141 6 p120 kings of Tyre and Byblos were advised, as has already been indicated, by a Council of Elders, or representatives of the most renowned and powerful families in the city, whose power probably lay in their merchantile interest. As far as we an tell from the correspondence of the kings of Tyre and Bublos with the pharaohs of El Amarna, this institution goes back at least to the middle of the second millenium BC p121 Those who belonged to the Council of Elders or Council of State in each of the Phoenician cities were called spt in Phoenician, equivalent ot the Akkadian sapitum and the the Hebrew sophet. In Israel, for example, these suffettes or 'judges' governed the territory in exceptional circumstances in the years 1200-1030 BC. There, they were leaders of clans and tribes, magistrates by divine right, who would be the forerunners of the monarchy. The best-known of the judges of Israel was Saul p126 With respect to the ancient Canaanite religion, the Phoenician religion of the Iron AGe presupposes an ideological break, which implies profound religious, ideological and socio-political changes at the end of the second millennium.. Nevertheless, the most important novelty os the appearance of human sacrifice, unknown, apparently, in the second millenium, and the birth of 'national' gods with no known predecents, like Melqart, Eshmun, and Reshef.. [human sacrifice] also known by the biblical name of 'Moloch sacrifice', would develop in a special way in the Phoenician enclaves in the west, where it appears linked with fertility rites and the monarchy. In Phoenicia, human sacrifice was very sporadic and disappeared in the middle of the first millenium p127 In the city of Tyre, by contrast, the chief divinity was masculine: Melqart, the protector of the city, symbol of the monarchic institution and founder of colonies. Asarte, Baal Shamem and Baal Hammon play a supporting part.. testimony of Herodotus [2:43-44].. saw the temple in Tyre with his own eyes and describes it flanked by the two famous columns of gold and emerald and, inside it, the tomb of the god. Some authors have hinted at a direct link between the two pillars and the Pillars of Hercules [Gibraltar] at the other end of the Phoenician world, in the city of Gadir [Cadiz] (Arrianus 2:17,2-4) p128 immolation of the god through ritual cremation. The intention was, logically, to revive him and make him immortal by virtue of fire. The belief in resurrection by faire, already known in Ugaritic myths, explains the fact that Melqart is also called 'fire of heaven'.. agricultural nature of Melqart, a god who dies and is reborn each year in accordance with natural cycles, was ecliped by his great maritime prowess p129 of Melqart is the history and fate of Tyre and her daughters, the western colonies. In Hannibal's famous oath of 215 BC, the Tyrian pantheon is still mentioned, consisting of Heracles (Melqart) and Asarte, as well as Iolaos or Eshmun, all of them symbols of the monarchy. In the history of Cyprus, Melqart-Eshmun, that is, the royal family of Tyre, appear as founders of the kingdom of Kition. In the fifth century BC, Kition is still minting coins with the efficgy of Melqart. When Alexander the Great beseiged Tyre, the Macedonian, who claime dto be descended from Heracles, expressed a wish to offer a sacrifice in the temple of Melqart for ends that were clearly political (Arrianus 2:15,7-16,7). The Tyrians were categorically opposed to this, cosidering the place to be sacred. Melqart was the symbol of their autonomy and independence, but above all he was the symbol of their national p130 The most ancient Tyrian foundations in the Mediterranean appear to be linked to a temple which, in most cases, was dedicated to Melqart. In fact, Tyrian expansion tot he west coincided with the gradual introduction of the worship of Melqart in Cyprus, Thasos, Malta.. In Gadir and Carthage, the figure of Melqart finds its way even into the story of the foundation p168 famous refernce by the Roman historian Velleius Paterculus (Hist_Rome 1:2,1-3), which placed the founding of Gadir [Utica] eighty years after the Trojan War, that is around the year 1104 or 1103 BC p273 The year 550 BC is usually considered to be the moment of transition from the Phoenician to the Punic phase in the west.. In the Iberian peninsula, the Punic period was accompanied by the very first appearance of traces of a cult and sanctuaries dedicated to Tanit, the principal deity of the Carthaginian pantheon, and by the presence of sober, functional pottery replacing the classic Phoenician red-burnished tableware. From the sixth century onwards, the first great urban centres like Ibiza appear; in them, the official religion of Carthage wasimposed and the relatively peaceful trade of the eighth to seventh centuries gave way to a militarist policy that was to accompany the history of the west until Romanization. The old Phoenician settelements along the Mediterranean coast of Andalusia were abandoned, or were reorganized but always after a gap or generalized break pp274-5 crisis of the Phoenician diaspora in the far west..fall of Typre to Nebuchadnezzar after thirteen years of siege (586-573 BC).. fall of Assyrian empire in 612 BC into the hands of the Medes and Babylonians. THe siege of Tyre came later and merely delivered the coup de grace to an economic situation that made the presence of her commercial agents on the Straits of Gibraltar untenable.. There is no doubt that the Phoenicians generated wealth and prompted profound transformations within the indigenous societies of Andalusia and the Mediterranean seabord p282 Gadir was a merchantine metropolis, founded in response to the resources of Lower Andalusia - Tartessos - with which it established direct trade.. In effect, Gadir did not control the Tartessian hinterland since that was already occupied by a developed population. For that reason, the only traces we know of Phoenician defensive systems or fortifications are limited to the city of Gadir itself p283 In Carthage, rather than of a merchantile emporium, we must speak of an aristocratic colony, which very soon attained urban status and which, through its particularly puritanical and conservative civico-religious institutions, was to monopolize the economic and idological activity of vast territories in the west #@# Podhoretz, Prophets, Free Press, 2002 ISBN 0-7432-1927-9 p2 enemy they knew as idolatry.. keeps coming back under different names and in mutated forms p7 But the most extreme example - or what seems to me the reductio ad_absurdum of this kind of textual analysis - the Book of Obadiah, the shortest in the Hebrew Bible, consisting wholly of a single chapter of only twenty-one verses represent either six or eight unrelated fragments that may have originated with as many different prophets p11 King James Version comes closest in syntax, cadence, locution, and spirit to the original Hebrew.. traslates Hebrew idioms in such a way that they seem entirely native to English p43 We have already seen that idolatry is not yet prohibited among nations other than Israel. And from the classical prophetic literature, we will learn that only at the End of Days will all these nations finally smash their idols and bow down to the one true God p56-60 loose confederation of tribes or clans.. Samuel is a kind of circuit judge.. first king, Saul, whom Samuel himself is instructed by God to seek out and annoint.. reluctantly, since he has already resisted the clamor of the people for a king p77 goal is not to aggrandize their own power but to establish the rule of God - first within Israel itself, and then.. among other peoples p103 Elijah will come to be featured as one of the greatest heroes of the past with an even more important role to play in the future as the herald of the Mesiah.. transported to heaven in a flaming chariot p113 prophetic guilds - as well as their anonymous masters - have by now degenerated p125 Nor does His covenant with Israel entail God's indifference to the moral behavior of other peoples.. seven laws of Noah (prohibitions against murder robbery, adultery, etc).. all the peoples who live before Abraham p129 everything that has been destroyed will be rebuilt.. n. "Sheol was to the Hebrews the abode of the dead. Believed to be located in the depths of the earth, it is a simile for inaccessibility" p159 Feodor Dostoevsky, warned (prophetically sensing the rise of totalitarianism in the next century, as surely as Amos and Hosea experienced intimations of the rise of Assyria in their own day), "everything" would become possible. Nor could even many who agreed with Nietzsche accompany him to his more optimistic conclusion that, liberated from the shackles of religion, mankind could now move to a stage "beyond good and evil" p178 Jon D Levenson.. exegetes of the Middle Ages.. "if the real author is God, it is of no account which human vessel He inspired with any given verse" p183 [Isaiah] some of the greatest poetry ever written in any language p187 angry lament over the expropriations of small landholdings by the owners of large estates.. moral evil abetted by judicial corruption p190 nature worship, one of the forms of idolatry prevalent in the North in those days p213 [Habakkuk] tells the prophet that He is about to unleash the Chaldeans p244 Ezekiel is the only prophet God addresses as "ben-adam," a term that literally means "son of man" p261 It is the same in Babylon, where, Kaufmann passionately argues, the exiles are nothing short of heroic in maintaining their faith under conditions that radically challenge it, and in resisting the pressures to worship strange gods. (They even, he rightly observes, manage to make converts among the Baylonians.) p267 Cyrus.. even granting them a subsidy with which to rebuild their Temple p276 Israel, then, is not to be merely a "mediator of blessings": it is to be the teacher of God's law p280 (In fact, the rudiments of the new institution of the synagogue - which will become the substitute for a temple after the second one is destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE - are evidenlty already present in Babylon in the days of Second Isaiah.) p286 true universalism of the Second Isaiah.. reassurance thisprophet gives to the converts made in Babylonia who are worried about the status they will have when they arrive in Jerusalem p288 Samaritans.. descendants of the Assyrians snet to colonize the Northern Kingdom.. adopted the religionof Israel, and were now practising it.. manner of observance was looked upon as improper by the returnees p309 cessation of classical prophesy in the mid-fifth century BCE (just when - in another touch of mystery? - Socrates and Plato and Aristotle and many other giants of Greek culture are becoming prominent in Athens) p315 keep their people faithful to God because they believed with all their hearts and all their souls that He Had, out of inscrutable love, chosen the children of Israel as the instrument through which His Law would be revealed and ultimately accepted by every other peopel as well... Leo Strauss was obviously right when he located the roots of Western civilization in two ancient cities: Jerusalem and Athens.. Maimonides set out to reconcile the teachings of Judaism with those of Aristotle; then in the next century St Thomas Aquinas dedicated himself to the same gigantic project as it applied to Christianity p326 only God can bring about the messianic era. Not believing in God, and therefore oblivious of that essential truth, revolutionaries of the modern era from Robespierre to Lenin, from Mao to Pol Pot, who set out to realize the utopian visions of a world of perfect justice, harmony, brotherhood, felt justified in constructing totalitarian regimes and murdering as many millions as they thought it would take to createsuch a world.. dream of peace.. disarmers and treaty makers of the 1920s.. had the opposite effect p334 The triggering event was the infamous decree of 167 BCE issued by Antiochus, a Seleucid monarch and a great devotee of Greek culture. Under its provisions, anyone caught with a copy of the Torah or circumcising a baby boy would be executed (and many were, including several of the leading rabbinical sages of the period). Antiochus then followed up this ruthless policy of Hellenization by rededicating the Temple in Jerusalem to Zeus and offering sacrifices to him there. "At this point," Moorer comments, "the extension of divine retribution beyond the tomb came as a necessary corollary to the idea of God's justice and the assurance of his faithfulness in fulfilling his promise to the righteous" p337 A pious Jew offers thanks for the rising of the sun and its setting; for every morsel of food he eats; and even - in a regulation that is at once comical and impressive in its robust and earthy attitude toward life - for the successful conclusion of the lowliest bodily functions p350-1 delegitimize these traditional attitudes and ideas altogether. Students and professors who refused to toe the line were punished by suspension or forced to undergo "sensitivity training".. "reeducation camps".. "Incorrect" points of view on these matters were stigmatized as "hate speech".. religious need not apply.. environmentalism, the antinomian strain grew out of the counterculture's assault on technology with its contempt for the workings of man. To this it appended a kind of nature worship that even involved an attack on "specieism" or the assumption that human beings were superior to animals p353 Paganism often (always?) involved the worship of nature.. sanctioned sexual promiscuity.. involved the readiness to sacrifice one's own children for one's own good.. "Home-Alone America" p357 bowing down to the work of their own hands, what they were worshiping was themselves; and in worshiping themselves, in trusting in themselves as though they were gods, they not only failed to acquire superhuman status, but htey lost even such powers as were granted to human beings, becoming as dead to the world as the idols they constructed.. idolatry amounted to self-deification, the delusion.. In the Ten Commandments, the primary violation of the law is idolatry.. cult of self.. delusion that we humans are capable of creating a perfect world - a delusion out of which in the past century alone mountains of corpses have been amassed #@# Basic Judaism Steinberg 1947..75 Harvest 0-15-61069801 p5 Nathan and Elijah who rebuked kings for deeds of oppression. Amos.. universality of God.. Hosea.. God inexhaustible in mercy.. Isaiah who espied design in history.. universal peace and equity p12 Hilel, a Palestinian sage.. "That which is hurtful to thee do not to thy neighbor. This is the whole doctrine. The rest is commentary.".. Rabbi Akiba.. "great principle" of Judaism in the commandment laid down in Leviticus" Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" p35 Jewish religion is highly intellectualistic in the sence that it places understandign among its supreme purposes, and in the further sense that it believes in knowledge as the key to understanding. But neither knowledge nor understanding is atainable without inquiry, debate, and the right to make up one's own mind. By its nature, then, Judaism is averse to formal creeds which of necessity limit and restrain thought.. For all its heavy intellectualism it sets morality above logic, the pursuit of justice and mercy over the possession of the correct idea p40 Similarly the eleventh century neo-Platonist, Solomon ibn Gabriol, speaks of God as "the mystery in which our thoughts weary themselves to find a stay." Maimonides a century later insists that God so far transcends human comprehension that all positive descriptions of Him are inappropriate p42 Heathendom assumed a deity in and for each object: the river, the tree, the sun; in and for each faculty and function:fertility, memory, the artisan's skill. So it tore reality to shreds, and then, to confound confusion, assumed that each spirit had no other role except to look after its own. Under this construction there was no order, either logical or moral, to things p48 He helps men from Himself by the inflow of His spirit into their hearts, either in response to prayer or through mystical communion or in the course of the normal respiration of the soul. Invading them, He renders them strong with a strength they did not possess heretofore, sharpsighted with an unusual insight, and compassionate with mercy they have not otherwise known p49 Salvation is man's victory over his limitations: ignorance, for instance, or insensitivity; it is his conquest of sinfulness, of the evils resident within him, such as pride, selfishness, hate, lust, cynicism, the deliberate rejection of goodness and truth p54 Than an evil may be the result of some prior sin of the individual on whom it is visited.. That it may represent the expiation of the wrong-doing not of an individual but of his community; that if a man avails himself of the advantages afforded him by his society, he must be prepared to take responsibility for its iniquities. That it is necessary so that man may be a moral being. For how, if there were no evil, could man choose the good?.. That it supplies men with a touchstone on which they may test the stuff of which they are made, an adversary against whom to contend and so grow strong; a contest without which there could be no victory pp62-3 This is the good, according to the formulas of the Tradition: To do the will of God.. To reveal His glory.. To hallow His name.. To imitate Him.. To advance God's kingdom p66 Maimonides asserted that the climax of the religious life and the perfection of man consists in "the possession of the highest intellectual faculties and of such notions as lead to true metaphysical opinions" p67 "The bashful learneth not, the impatient teacheth not".. "Why is Torah compared to water? To teach thee that as water floweth away from the lofty and gathereth only in lowly places, so with wisdom among men" p72 By presenting marriage as a concession to human weakness, it has turned into a second-best what is, properly regarded, the loveliest and most ennobling of all human associations p100 Indeed, from the strictly traditionalist viewpoint, there is a sense in which Gentiles come by salvation more easily than Jews (though not so certainly). For a non-Jew it is required only that he conform to the "seven commandments ordained upon the sons of Noah" which are the principles of piety and morality conceived by the ancient rabbis as binding on all mankind: to refrain from (1) idolatry; (2) incest and adultery, (3) bloodshed; (4) the profanation of God's name; (5) injustice and lawlessness; (6) robbery; (7) inhumane conduct, such as cutting a limb from a living animal. What is more, Talmudic literature is studded with incidents concerning heathens who are said "to have acquired the world to come" by single acts of extraordinary kindness and integrity. Against that, it is expected of Jews for their salvation that they shall undertake to discharge as many of the six hundred and thirteen commandments of Torah as apply to them p119 Prayer to be efficacious must place God's will higher than man's and, when the two conflict, must subordinate the latter to th eformer. Always it must begin with the postulate, implied or expressed, "May it be Thy will." Always it must close with the thought, verbalized or silent, "Thy will be done" fn-p127 Historic Judaism has alway laid heavy stress on cleanliness. We have already noted its insistence on the washing of hands before the breaking of bread. The hygienic design in the dietary laws may well be another case in point. The Tradition provides further for the establishment of public ritual bath houses in every community and specifies the times and occasions at which they are to be visited. This preoccupation with cleanliness stands forth the more remarkably when it is contrasted with the attitude widespread in the Middle Ages whereunder dirt was not only acquiesced in but was sometimes regarded as a concomitant of saintliness p145 Law is an element in Judaism, lat of all, because of the intense Jewish preoccupation with ethics, and because of the historic Jewish insistence that ideals need to be put into habits and disciplines. If they be social they must be incarnated in institutions, folkways, and law. Otherwise, their cogency and content will evaporate, and they woll be left in the end empty vessels p157 Once all rabbis bowed to the authority of the supreme rabbinical court, the Sanhedrin. When that body dissolved - sometime in the fifth century - a portion of its power was conferred by unspoken consent upon the presidents and senates of two great Talmudical academies in Baylonia. In the eleventh century, these too ceased to be effective forces. Thereafter no rabbi has owed obedience to any other pp160-1 As to the form of the hereafter, of Paradise or Heaven or Eden where righteousness is said to be rewarded, of the Hell or Sheol or Gehinnom where wickedness is punished - on this, as on so many other articles of belief, individual Jews have at all times put private interpretations. Indeed it is questionable whether any other tenet of Judaism has been more divergently construed.. On some day to come, the bodies of the dead of all time will arise from their graves, souls will be summoned from the places an states to which they have been committed, and both will be reunited as during their existence on earth. Then on every human being, body and soul together, and in the presence of all the multitudes of all generations, God will pronounce judgement whether of bliss or damantion p162-3 modernists. As they read the Bible, it most ancient portions have only this to say about an afterlife: that the souls of the dead are consigned to a shadowy underworld called Sheol where they continue in a vague and only partly conscious existence.. Only in the days of the Second Temple did these doctrines emerge, partly as a normal unfolding of potentialities latent in Judaism; partly in a response to the stimulation of Zoroastrianism with its teachings concerning Resurrection and the Last Judgement, and of Hellenism with its highly developed notion of immortality. On the basis of this historical construction, some few modernists draw the inference that neither Resurrection not Immortality is integral to the Jewish religion.. retain faith in the deathlessness of man's spirit not only in its naturalistic connotations but in its beyond-this-life significance as well. They are sparing of guesses as to what the state of immortality may be like but firm in the conviction that in some fashion the human personality outlives its corporeal housing p165 God's Kingdom is therefore more than a promise. Obscured and broken though it be, latent rather than overt, it is also an ever-present actuality. Everything in the world subserving goodness is of its dominion. Everyone ministering to the right is, whether knowingly or not, its citizen.. Every formal service closes with a twofold prayer, in the first of which the worshipper offers obeisance to the Kingdom, in the second of which he prays for its speedy coming in its completeness #@# Gospel acc Moses, Athol Dickson ISBN 0-7394-3550-7 brazospress.com [Protestant invited to Jewish Bible study] p21 asking questions is a way to demonstrate humility, because inherent in the question is the assumption that I do not have the answer p25 third explanation for divine silence: I am probably unable to safely handle some of the answers p28 The Lord wants to communicate with me as badly as I want to communicate with him p33 Pure, all powerful, unchanging, all-knowing and ever-present p43 If G-d should ever decide to change the rules in the middle of this hand he has dealt, the entire game would be off p46 suspended strict justice.. withdrawn, for our protection p55 G-d exists outside of time.. can have it both ways p73 paradoxes of Scripture to ease me back toward the middle between the truths.. love G-d _and my neighbor. Faith _and works are both important. Justice _and mercy are required. My action are somehow free _and predestined. G-d is somehow everywhere _and uniquely here.. p75 layer behind layer of truth.. holding two truths in sight simultaneously.. looking past the paradox to focus on the truth.. p76 Blind faith is based on something much too small: me.. true faith is open to new facts, even when they threaten to change my beliefs p108 "Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly father is perfect" [Matthew 5:48 & Leviticus 11:45] p126 human choice and not about inherited [orig sin] p143 felt humble gratitude for the undeserved loan of the offering and returned it in a spirit of thankfulness p150 "The ritual and ceremonial commandments will be abolished in the future that is to be" Niddah 61b p174 study, prayer, obedience to mitzvot and repentant fasting- comes only _after forgiveness has already been received.. offering up obedience to balance disobedience p176 "You do not delight in sacrifice.. broken and contrite heart" Psalm 51:16-17 p255 "G-d's gifts and his call are irrevocable" Romans 11:29 .. does not change and neither does his arrangement with Israel #@# GOD 101 Rabbi Terry Bookman ISBN 0-399-526258-7 2000 betham-miami.org PenguinPutnam.com [cit Jewish scripture: Tanakh, Jewish Publication Society, Phila 1985] p15 anthropocentric systems are bound to fail.. self-interest will tell us that we are exempt from following the rules of conscience p19 graven images.. God is without definition.. p24-25 Ten Commandments we read that the sins.. up to the third or fourth generation.. repeating patterns they learned as children p31 balance of good and bad.. incapable of knowing the one without experiencing the other p35 compelled to cause us to suffer.. return to our relationship with the Holy One p38 miracles have a great deal to do with perception.. p40 voice within.. quiet all distractions.. meditation p43 God seeks us. We call this "grace" p47 Finite cannot assume the Infinite.. Mystery p53 Judaism likes to see things as dialectic.. tension of the middle [ie divine truth appears contradictory] p66 to stay God-conscious is also work.. discipline and repeated effort p71 hacham uses her brain, and the navi his heart, then the path of the hasid is through the hands and feet p72 We are professional mitzvah doers p75 prayer is l'hitpallel.. whisper, or say out loud.. conversation we have within ourselves p77 Prayer is also a conversation we have with a community of others, which we call "minyan" p79 not knowing what the words mean can often be an enhancement to true prayer.. turn off left-brain rational p80 Jewish tradition calls for both keva/fixed prayers.. and kavanah/intentionaility and spontaneity. It demands both p82 midnight..between time, almost unworldly p86 God has to be roused by our petitions, but that we have the power to do so p88 ego-centered..evil..distractions.. itch just when you are really.. invite the barriers to be part.. capitalize on the energy.. laugh at them.. Adon Olam prayer, "Into your hands, I place my spirit. I will not be afraid" p90 [meditation] block left-brain rational thinking so as to allow the mind to quiet itself.. in through the nose and out through the mouth.. phrase that can elevate.. God names are good for this p95 challenged to say a hundred blessings ever day.. pray three times a day p100 perceptive mechanisms point us outward.. have to see with our hearts p102 bending your will to that of the group can be very beneficial, especially in the realm of pryaer p113 go wherever the truth will lead me.. Even dissenting minority opinions were preserved p121 Studying with others forces us to listen, to open ourselves up to the truth of what the other is saying, to wait our turn, to weigh our words p131 behalf of others.. individual does not deem them to be such usually means that he or she is not God-focused p134 Jewish tradition that the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed because of senceless hatred.. just as easy to be nice as it is to be nasty and it feels so much better.. never to go to bed angry at another p136 When people are unhappy with their work, it is often because that work does not allow them to fulfill their true mission.. p138 Maimonides.. tzedakah.. anonymous giving to be at a higher level.. putting someone to work was actually the highest.. from the perspective of the recipient.. not the giver p153 Anytime we extend ourselves.. without concern for ourselves.. is a spiritual act.. taste of the infinite.. recognize the sacredness of all life p154 Relationships challenge our humanness.. deny ourselves.. trust, accept limits, make sacrifices, and live by our deeds and not just by our words.. p155 Each of us, even that annoying guy at work, has a spark of the divine within.. "..whoever destroys even one soul is regarded by the Torah as if s/he had destroyed an entire world; and whoever saves a soul, is regarded as if s/he had saved an eniter world" (Mishna Sanhedrin) p156 "love your neighbor as yourself.." Leviticus 19:19 p157 To covet is to dehumanize.. blinds us to the totality p158 Patience is about acceptance.. humility.. pay attention.. "thou shalt not curse the deaf, not put a stumbling block in front of the blind" [Leviticus 19:14].. excercise of power.. [those who trust us] p160 full humanity of the other..courtesies p161 clear boundaries.. not always easy.. Differing expectations can destroy the fabric of what the relationship ought to be about. p162 Boundary violations are dehumanizing..create confusion p163 stop blaming.. still feel [wrongly] that responsibility equals fault.. Responsibility begins, then, with the willingness to look at the possibility that I was a cause in the matter p164 "For sins against God the Day of Atonement atones. But for sins against another, the Day of Atonement does not atone, until one seeks and asks forgiveness from the one whom he offended" I read that every year on Yom Kippur. It is an accurate summary of the Jewish theology of forgiveness. p165 If we repeat the sin..still have work to do p173 make some space for the world to exist..voluntary contraction..tzimtzum.. p174 True love.. involves a loss of freedom, a loss of autonomy, and to some extent, a loss of self p184 Our children force us to examine and reexamine all of our defenses and reasons #@# Eidelberg Judaic_Man ISBN0-391-03970-9 1996 p104 How different was Abraham, born thirty-eight centuries ago, in the year 1948 on the Hebrew calendar, the very year marking on the secular calendar, the rebirth of Israel. This first of the great scientific and philosophic minds rejected every form of idolatry, by which is meanth the belief that any physical entity, law, or process or for that matter any mental law or process, exists independenly of the Creator. I call such a belief "reification." Abraham understood then what exceedingly few people understand today (when quantum physics has excluded visualization from the compreliension of nature): not only that the Creator cannot be an object of sense-perception or of imagination, but that it is a desecration to represent Him in any form whatever. Insofar as we can know anything of HaShem - and it is only by His works - it is with the intellect and without the emotionalism that underlies religion and its surrogates, such as the worship of nature, secular humanism, or some utopian ideology. The man of Torah ridicules the emotions evoked by nature because he knows that nature has no necessary existence, that it endures solely by the Will of God. It is abhorent to Judaic man to worship any created thing, be it nature or humanity. The faith - really the certitude of Judaic man is not the result of the emotions. To the contrary, his faith abides despite his emotions, especially the emotions consequent upon twenty-five centuries of persecution, pogroms, and holocaust. If Judaism were based on the emotions the Jewish people would have perished long ago. To perfect the faculties of the Jewish people, the Torah provides a profound and comprehensive program of education involving sustained study and practice of the laws contained in the Pentateuch and explicated in the Mishna and Talmud. These are laws of life and living. They train the three primary agencies of the human soul, the emotions, volition, and intellect. Not that man's mental powers exist per se and the Torah appears afterwards to teach mankind how to live. Rather, the human faculties exist in order to make manifest the wisdom of the Torah. As will be seen later, the key objective of a Torah education is to secure the rule of the intellect over the imagination and affective agency of the soul - the desires and inclinations - the sources of reification which can hinder the Torah's world-historical goal of man, that of conquering nature. Without the Torah the intellect can provide mankind nothing worthy of abiding love and reverence. To love the creations of our own hands or minds without reference to the Creator is nothing but narcissism. Eventually, self-love turns into self-hatred. Insanity follows, and on a global scale. How different is the paradigm of Judaic man - so well-balanced, so thoroughly rational and humane.. #@# Jewish Customs, Bloch, Ktav 1980 p309 Talmud attributed the stringency of Tisha B'av to the multiple disasters which occured on that day.. commemoration of the loss of the Temple p312 forbidden to cut one's hair and to wash laundry during the week [proto-lent?] of Tisha B'av.. Wine and meat, according to tradition, generate lingering joy. Furthermore, wine and meat were part of the Temple's sacrificial rituals, which came to an end withthe loss of the Sanctuary. It was therefore considered proper to abstain from them close to the fast [lent as prep for fast].. There are five pleasurable acts which are prohibited on Tisha B'av: eating, washing, annointing, wearing if leather shoes, and marital intercourse #@# Jacobs, Holy Living: saints & saintliness in Judaism ISBN 0-87668-822-9 Aronson 1990 NJ p125 The whole question of intercession at the graves of the saints exercised the minds of the traditional halakhists. The main discussion centers on two talmudic passages. In one (Sotah 34b), it is said that Caleb prostrated himself on the graves of the patriarchs and said to them, "My fathers, pray on my behalf that I may be delivered from the plot of spies." In the other passages (Taamit 47a), it is said that on days of fasting people go out to the graves to ask the dead to pray on their behalf. Against this is the orohibition of necromancy (Deuteronomy 18:11). The general line adopted by the majority of halkhists is that since the saints are asked only to pray on behalf of the supplicants, the question of necromancy does not arise. [cit Ency Jud v7 p247] The Zohar (III,71a-71b), in fact, goes so far as to say that "inquiring of the dead" does not apply to the saints, since they are still alive #@# Vox Graeca Guide Pronunc Classical Greek Wm Sydney Allen Cambrigde 3ed ISBN 0 521 33367 9 p67 On Indo-Greek coins of the 2 B.C. u is represented by i (e.g. Dianisiyasa - Diovusiou); but this does not necessarily mean that Greek [U"] had by then become [i] as in the modern language; it indicates only that Indo-Aryan had no rounded front vowe, and so rendered it by the equivalent unrounded vowel. This conclusion is also supported by the Latin evidence; in early borrowings and transcriptions from Greek, Latin speakers wrote and pronounced u (i.e. the equivalent back vowel) for Gree u, as in e.g. Ennius' 'Burrus' for Purros 9cf VL, p52); but with the spread of Greek knowledge, the Greek pronounciation and letter came to be adopted, at least in educated circles - hence eg hymnus, Olympia. Clearly, whilst the Greek sound was not [u], neither was it [i]; and there are references in Latin writer to its non-existence in native Latin words: thus eg Cicero, Or 160 and Quintilian xii 10 27 p78 Fig 3 Approximate chrnological development of Attic long vowels and 'short' diphthongs (excluding pre-vocalic position) pre-5c. 5c 4c 3c 2c 1c BC AD 1c 2c 3c Modern _ _ a a a _ _ i i _ i _ _ " u u - u i _ _ _ n e e i i , _ . ei e i i _ . w o o , _ _ ou o - u u . _ ai ai e e , au au av eu eu _ _ ev " " " oi oi - (?oi) (?o) u i 1 pp177-9 excerpts of "Summary of Recommended Pronounciations" alpha-iota As in English high alpha-ypsilon As in English how beta As English b gamma (1) As English 'hard' g (2) Before kappa, chi, gamma, mu: as n in English ink or ng in song delta As French d epsilon As in English pet epsilon-iota As in German Beet zeta [zd] As in English wisdom eta As in French tete theta As t in English top omikron-iota As in English boy, coin ypsilon As in French lune, ruse chi As c in English cat omega As in English saw #@# SEPTUAGINT LAMENTATIONS GREEK HEBREW INTERPRONOUNCIATION A /\ E Q ALEPH B H 8 VEETH F I M E /\ YIMEL D A /\ E 8 DTHALETH H EE O Y A Y OUAV Z A I N ZAEN H 8 EETH T H 8 TEETH I W D IOHDTH X A Q HAPH /\ A M E D LAMEDTH M H M MEEM N O Y N NOON S A M E X SAMEKH A I N AEN Q H FEE T S A D H TSADTHEE (CHATHIE) K W Q KOHF P H X S REEKHS X S E N KHSEN 8 A Y THAV #@# Pronounciation of Greek and Latin Edgar Sturtevant (Yale) 1920..1940 LingSocAm UP 1940 p41 s32 fig5 [i*] [e*] [ei] [e*] [a*] 500 BC i e ei n 400 BC i ei n 200 BC i,ei ei n 1 BC i,ei ei,n 400 AD i,ei,n p46s42 fig 6 [oh] [ou] [o*] [u*] [y] Before 500 BC o ou o u 500-350 o,w ou,o u After 350 w ou u #@# Warren Treadgold, Hist_Byz_State&Society, sup.org 1997 ISBN0-8047-2630-2 LC97-23492 [son of fam Salvicist?] pp xviii-xix Byzantium shaped and passed on Christian, Roman, and Greek traditions, including Christian theology, Roman law, and the Greek classics.. most powerful influence on Russia.. conservative, religious and not very materialistic.. else has matched it in maintaining a single state and society for so long, over a wide area inhabited by heterogeneous peoples p30 Noticing that the church hierarchy was a source of Christian strength, Maximin imitated it by naming pagan high priests for each province and chief priests for each city p121 Christianity, by contrast, flatly repudiated the old gods, insisting that they were not only inferior spirits but evil ones as well.. condemned fornication, adultery, homosexual acts, gladiatorial combat, abortion, and infanticide p126 Christian tradition strongly condemned killing, and had not agreed on exceptions for war, police action, or execution.. eastern position, as defined by Basil of Caesarea, was that those who killed, even in just cause, should do penance and abstain from communion for three years. The western view, professed by Saint Ambrose and Saint Augustine, drew a sharper distinction between justified and unjustified killing, and generally condoned the former p135-6 Despite the efforts of the emperors to look like absolute rulers, they were in practice nothing of the sort, and the ideology of a Christian empire would not allow them to be.. tolerate some misrule, but not the unbridled tyranny of a Nero or a Commodus. In exchange, if the emperor was a reasonably decent man, Christian public opinion helped restrain those who might want to overthrow him.. "Greek" (Hellen) was coming to mean a pagan rather than a person of Greek race or culture. Instead, the usual word for an eastern Greek had begun to be "Roman" (Rhomaios), which we moderns may render as "Byzantine" p198 [542] Jacob Baradaeus, made it his mission to revivify Monophytism within the empire.. dressed as a beggar to elude government officials.. willing to use Syriac and Coptic in the Mass p221 [571] momentary triumph of common sence, Justin's Chalcedonians and Jacob's Monophysites admitted that they held the same beliefs and merely expressed them differently p257 Justinian gave bishops jurisdiction over many civil cases in their courts, and in some cases precedence over governors p280 The economic expansion seems to help explain the increased frequency of social disorder, including religious and factional rioting. Such riots had happened before, but had seldom been so sever as they became after the mid-fifth century, when many cities had large groups of young men with leisure to devote to sports, shows, carousing, crime, and following their own fashions. The gangs of Blues and Greens, who cut their hair like Huns, wore expensive and outlandish clothes in their colors, and went about armed, were only the most conspicuous of these rowdies p307 It might well have failed against the Arabs as they were by 641. They still had all the fierceness of nomads, like the Germans, Huns, and Avars who had often defeated the empire but had been too divided and disorganized to destroy its eastern part. With the foundation of the caliphate, the Arabs had gained both cohesion and organization, like the Persians who had recently come so close to destroying the empire. This combination was fearsome, especially when joined to religious fervor, and neither the Byzantines nor anyone else had yet learned how to slow its progress, let alone how to stop it p365 silenced all iconophile opposition. His loyal strategi spread his persecution of monks through all but the border areas... Lachanodracon.. eradicated monasticism within his theme p392 Feeling against execution was so strong that emperors punished even most of their political opponents only by mutilating them p410 Western feudalism, which entirely substituted grants of land for cash payments, was a more extreme form of the same solution. Byzantium at least managed to maintain some payments to its soldiers, some control over their supplies, and fairly tight control over the highest officers p417 Yet Irene, an orphan in her mid-twenties from the shrunken provincial town of Athens, had been keen political instincts, a strong will, and some devoted allies in the bureaucracy. The precariousness of her position seems to have given her a sence of urgency p423 pope argued that a woman was ineligible to be emperor, so that Charlemagne was simply filling a vacancy p428 [809, Nicephorus] Before long the settlers turned most of Greece from a Slavonic-speaking land into a Greek-speaking one p454 [866] In frustration over Bulgaria's defection to the papacy, Photius held a council in late summer that declared Pope Nicholas deposed on the grounds that various western church practices of long standing were heretical. These included fasting on Saturdays, using unleavened bread in the Eucharist, and excluding married men from the priesthood. Photius particularly condemned the filioque p482 During the five years since the great famine, they had concentrated much more land.. edict in 934, specifying that lands purchased illegally since 928 must be returned to the sellers p493 As the empire's prestige grew, the Russian princess Olga, Igor's widow and regent for her young son Svyatoslav, visited Constantinople. She was baptized under the name of Helena by the patriarch Polyeuctus, and though she failed to convert her whole country she built up a Russia church of some size p517 In desperation he appealed to the Russian prince Vladimir of Kiev, the only neighboring ruler who seemed strong enough to make a difference. Basil's lure was the hand of his sister Anna p528 Bulgaria, the only power in the Balkans that rivaled Byzantium, had utterly collapsed. From Castoria the emperor made his way overland to Athens, where he gave thanks for his victory in the Parthenon, in its Byzantine form as a church dedicated to the Virgin p534 eighth and eleventh centuries the empire made a recovery unparalleled in history.. society became if anything more unified p538 Every emperor from Michael II to Basil II would have liked to drive the Arabs from Sicily p542 Though all the Christian client rulers held Byzantine ranks and could use Byzantine seals on their documents, such privileges were mere honors, shared by Byzantine allies like Russia p553 Iconoclasm left most ordinary priests discredited for accepting it, while the new hierarchy, largely composed of monks, was inexperienced p574 trade was regarded with suspicion.. taxed merchants strictly.. had to be enrolled in a guild p596 [1054] insisted on traditional Byzantine practices in churches throughout the empire, especially in Armenia, where unleavened bread had long been used in the Eucharist as it was in the West. Exasperated by the patriarch's intrasignance, the papal legates excommunicated him. While the emperor tried to calm the dispute, demonstrations in the capital supported the patriarch, who excommunicated the legates. These personal condemnations did not end all communion between the eastern and western churches, but they ruined the emperor's alliance with the papacy and raised intractable issues p598 strictly speaking Isaac Comnenus was the first usurper to take power in more than two centuries p600 In 1060 the Normans took Rhegium and Tarentum, reducing Byzantine Italy to little more than the coast around Bari.. new sultan's main interest was in Muslim Syria, his Turks wanted to exploit the vulnerability of Byzantine Armenia and Asia Minor p614 Sulayman began to call himself sultan of Rum.. Alexius begged for help from Venice, from disaffected Normans, and from the German emperor Henry IV, who was an enenmy of the Norman's ally Pope Gregory VII p628 Alexius left the empire stronger than he found it.. While some Crusaders and military officers certainly did want to overthrow him, cautious cooperation with them would probably have reduced that danger, and might even have let him retake most of Asia Minor before the Turks made it fully their own p637 held was a wasteland {devegetated by Turkish goats}, and their Greek population was by now accustomed to Turkish rule. So John gave priority to subduing rebels, including the Crusaders who kept Antioch in defiance p647 Pope Alexander even considered withdrawing recognition from the German.. 1166 he held a council in Constantinople that rebuffed Byzantine critics of western theology.. offered to name Alexander to the vacant patriarchate of Constantinople.. pope shrank from the drastic p663 deposition seemed shocking to westerners unfamiliar with Byzantine politics, since in the West rulers were almost never overthrown.. {vjp2:Magna Carta plagiarised Byzantine governance when Crusaders returned} pope sent his own protest [to Crusader support of the pro-papal unusurper Alexius who the Byzantines again overthrew], to no avail p666 Within a few days the Crusaders breached the sea walls and set a fire that spread through the city.. emperors beginning with Manuel Comnenus had alienated the Venetians, the rulers of Germany, and many other westerners.. p669 nomadic herders with no real homes or rulers.. Turkmen particularly infested the border.. liked booty, particularly livestock and could penetrate almost anywhere in Byzantine Anatolia p673 The Pontus, despite having a Greek majority, was almost as insubordinate as Cilicia. But its less exposed position made it more peaceful, and its trade with the East may have made it somewhat richer. During most of the period from 1075 to 1140 local magnates from the Gabras family were its virtual rulers, sometimes as Byzantine governors, sometimes as rebels allied with the Danishmendids. When Constantinople fell in April 1204, two grandsons of Andronicus I, Alexius and David Comnenus, were already conquering the Pontus with the help of their aunt, the Georgian queen Tamara. While this Alexius claimed the title of Byzantine emperor, his new realm is usually called, after its capital, the Empire of Trebizond. Soon it took over what remained of the Byzantine Crimea, which had probably become independent from Constantinople bt 1198. Alexius and David Comnenus of Trebizond also had designs on Paphlagonia, where their family had its ancestral estates and their grandfather had launched his successful revolt p680 Pronoia grants covered revenues rather than the land itself, were at this stage not heritable, and formed incidental parts of a traditional state system rather than a parallel system of essentially personal obligations p686 Monasteries began to be founded with the stipulation that they should be administered only by their abbots, subject neither to charistike nor to interference from lay founders, bishops, or even the patriarch p711 After first welcoming the Latin capture of Constantinople as a means of reuniting the Church, Pope Innocent discovered how brutal the conquest had been and condemned the sack of the city and the Crusaders' plundering of Byzantine church property p733-4 all the Latin army and Venetian fleet were away from Constantinople, making a surprise attack on the Nicene island of Daphnusia.. Latin Emperor Baldwin fled by boat. When the Venetians tried to resist, Alexius burned their commercial quarter.. pp764-71 Hesychasm, a belief among Athonite monks that by repeating a short prayer, bowing their heads, and holding their breath {actually regulating their breath according to the Philokalia Jesus Prayer} they could see the light surrounding God himself.. At the news of Andronicus' death, Turkish pirates from Saruhan attacked the Thracian coast, Dushan of Serbia advanced on Thessalonica, the Albanians around Berat revolted, and the emperor John Alexander of Bulgaria threatened to invade... Acindynus's concern was less with Hesychasm than with Palamas's insistence on the superiority of mystical knowledge to philosophical argument.. empress, whose right to rule seemed clearest, dismissed Cantacuzenus as grand domestic.. Cantacuzenus, then at Didymotichus had himself proclaimed emperor.. Dushan was obvioulsy a dangerous ally.. At Didymotichus Irene Cantacuzena held out only with help from the Bulgarians, who also wanted to prolong the civil war, and from Cantacuzenus's friend Umur of Aydin {Palamas befriended and wanted to convert the Turks}, who sailed up the Hebrus but left when the winter greww too cold for him.. [empress] personally submitted to papal authority. Since the Palamites tended to favor Cantacuzenus and to oppose westerners, the empress and her patriarch turned against Palamism.. emperor, not just of the Serbs but of the Romans. In spring 1346 Dushan had himself crowned at Scopia by the archbishop of Pech, whom he promoted to patriarch for the occasion. Alexander of Bulgaria likewise assumed the title of emperor of the Bulgarians and Greeks.. let in their leader and a thousand of his men through a tunnel.. Anna agreed that Cantacuzenus should rule for ten years as senior emperor.. councils condemned the patriarch John Calecas, rehabilitated Gregory Palamas.. opponents were widely suspected of preferring philosophy to faith and the western church to the eastern, positions few Byzantines could condone p776 Ottoman occupation of Callipolis confirmed many Byzantines' worst fears about John VI's reliance on the Turks p781-3 Venetians and Genoese made peace by agreeing to turn Tenedos into a wasteland, belonging to no one. During this miserable family war, the Ottomans occupied even more of the central Balkans, which had become a welter of Serbian, Bulgarian and Albanian fiefdoms.. sultan himself was among the dead, and the Serbs have celebrated their valor in the battle of Kosovo ever since. Nevertheless, the Turks finally drove them from the field with crippling losses.. John V's reign as senior emperor justified in retrospect the Cantacuzenists who had fought to prevent it.. John let his army and navy decay, and squandered his last asset, Byzantine prestige, on ill-conceived apeals to the papacy, to Hungary, and to Venice p790 Ottoman Sultanate was not only smaller but split between Sulayman in the Balkans and his brothers in Anatolia. Yet the empire was itself divided into Manuel's coastal strips around Constantinople, John's coastlands around Thessalonica, and Theodore's Peloponnesus, each of which was essentially independent of the others. Sulayman held the territory between them and most of their hinterlands in Bulgaria, Thrace and Thessaly. He also kept contact with Anatolia through Callipolis. As the sultan had doubtless expected, Manuel's empire was a facade, with barely the resources to maintain itself p794-5 Among them were the patriarch of Constantinople Joseph II, the archbishop of Nicea Bessarion, representatives of the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, and bishops from Trebizond, Georgia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, and a second Vlach principality, Moldavia. Archbishop Isidore of Kiev, a Greek from Byzantium, came by land from Russia. Traveling by way of Venice, they all arrived in Ferrara the following spring.. continued into 1439 when it moved from Ferrara to Florence.. usually by an agreement to tolerate existing differences.. Although the patriarch Joseph died shortly before the proclamation of union, he left a written statement endorsng it. The emperor and all but two eastern delegates subscribed to it. The pope promised to organise a crusade the next year, and made Besarion of Nicea and Isidore of Kiev cardinals.. opponents found a leader in one of the two delegates who had rejected it, Archbishop Mark of Ephesus. Some other delegates who had subscribed at Florence disowned.. patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem all repudiated p799 The pope sent Cardinal Isidore of Kiev, who brought two hundred soldiers from Naples. But the pope insisted that Constantine proclaim the Union of Florence and reinstate the unionist patriarch Gregory.. reluctant to defy the antinunionists, the emperor felt unable to defy the papacy when western help was so desperately needed. He therefore had the Union of Florence proclaimed p800 As the enemy swarmed into the city, most of the Italians escaped in their ships, but almost all the Byzantine soldiers fought to their death, the emperor Constantine among them.. sultan freed a few others, but executed the highest Byzantine officials.. Preserving Saint Sophia for use as a mosque, he chose a new patriarch, Gennadius Scholarius, a former delegate to the Council of Florence who had become the leading antiunionist.. reinforcements from the West could have done no more that delay the city's fall by a few months pp824-5 Given that many eastern Christians would resist church union on any terms whatever, concluding such a union threatened the authority not only of the emperor but also of the patriarch of Constantinople. With the disappearance of the emperors of Bulgaria and Serbia, the Bulgarian and Serbian patriarchates lapsed, and the patriarchate of Constantinople again gained jurisdiction over the whole former Byzantine world - if he could keep it. Most of the Slavs and Greeks outside the empire, many already ruled by the sultan, were ready to break with Constantinople rather than accept any union with the western church.. allowed their Greek subjects to remain in communion with the patriarch.. limited the number of churches and bishops.. power grew, they saw a chance of extinguishing Christianity altogether in Asia Minor. In the Balkans, where this seemed impossible, the sultans found bishops useful as a means of controlling pp851-3 The only large region with a clear majority of Greek speakers was Greece south of Thessalonica, including the Agean islands, Crete and Cyprus. However, most regions that had been predominantly Greek-speaking at the beginning of the Byzantine period still had Greek-speaking minorities of some size. These included northern Greece, Thrace, most of the Anatolian coast, a few pockets and towns in the Anatolian interior, and even two enclaves in southern Italy.. Since in the First World War the Greeks were hesitantly aligned with the winning side, while Turkey and Bulgaria were losers, in 1920 Greece was able to annex all of Thrace but Constantinople itself, which though nominally Turkish was occupied jointly by the British and French. Woodrow Wilson assigned Trebizond to a newly independent Christian Armenia. The fairest and simplest boundary that could have been drawn between Greece and Turkey would probably have been at the straits, since it would have left about as many Greek speakers in Turkey as Turkish speakers in Greece.. Turkey deported some 1.3 million mostly Greek-speaking Christians to Greece, in exchange for some 300,000 mostly Turkish-speaking Muslims from Greek territory #@# H A Gribb Mohammedanism Cumberledge (Oxford '49 '54) p31 " And whether or not the story be true that in 628 [Muhammad] he sent summonses to the Roman Emperor, the Persian King of Kings and other ruling princes, he was certainly contemplating some action against the Byzantine power in the north before his death in 632." #@# 7Essays on Christian Greece, Demetrios Bikelas, Garnder, Paisley, 1890 [repr Scottish_Review] p14 This Legitimist sentiment, so marked by the New Rome, was certainly not derived from the Old.. in England the scrupulous retention of certain old-world official customs.. ridiculous in the eyes of foreigners, is accompanied by the most perfect excercise of liberty p34 Asiatic.. intense passion of religious hatred.. Latin Christianity seemed about to emigrate bodily into Asia for the purpose of rescuing the Holy Sepulchre.. hereditary nomad instinct.. barbarian hordes which had convulsed and colonized Europe some five or six centuries previously p39 [Luke Notaras] "Better a Turk's turban that a Cardinal's hat".. 1016, a Norman army poured into Italy and seized the provinces still ruled by the Eastern Empire.. captured Corfu and harried the mainland.. Meanwhile the same race conquered England p61 some few of the Emperors married Athenian women, they were themselves by origin all either Thracians, or Armenians, or Isaurians, or Cappadocians; there was not a single Athenian or Spartan among them, or one spring from any other purely Hellenic stock p63 [quotes Finlay] "The authority exercised by the Senate, the powers possessed by the Synods and General Councils of the Church, and the importance often attached by the Emperors to the ratification of their laws by silentia and popular assemblies, mark a change in the Byzantine Empire, in strong contrast with the earlier military Empire of the Romans.. power.. transferred from the army to the laws.. humanity.. visible in the mild treatment of many unsuccessful usurpers and dethroned Emperors.. [coronation oath, Kodinos, de Officiis cap xvii] to abide and perpetually be found a faithful and sincere servant and son of Holy Church, and moreover her defender and avenger.. abstain from bloodshed.. [.].. many of the worst Emperors were deposed by popular indignation p65 [M A Rambaud "Le Monde Byzantine et l'Hippodrome" Rvu Deux Mondes, 15AUG1871 - at the Hippodrome] Byzantine people made and unmade Emperors; there that justice was administered and the guilty punished, and that triumphs were celebrated over barbarians and rebels; there that the masses grazed upon wonders of art and of nature p72-3 [Montrevil says] The Greeks are by their very nature philosophical or speculative. The search for abstract truth is to them more attractive than the pursuit of reforms or the regulation of manners. They are a race eminently literary. They have always been thinkers rather than statesmen. They seized accordingly upon that side of Theology which most appealed to their natural genius. The heresies which arose among them were begotten by the same spirit.. proclivity towards idealism p74 It was the Byzantine Empire also which resisted the very first political pretensions of the Popes p77 Iconoclastic persecution.. mainly responsible for the separation of Central Italy from the other domains of the Empire #@# Byzantine Christianity, Magoulias, Rand McNally 1970 p16 councils of bishops were regarded as a kind of ecclesiastical senate, and the same procedure was applied to them.. But the views of the majority of both clergy and laity could not be defied by even the most authoritarian emperor, and more than once the will of the people overturned the decisions reached by the bishops p98 Charlemagne's.. court poets even referred to Aix-la-Chapelle as "New Rome"! pp103-4 Liutprand of Cremona writes in his Chronicle of Otto's Reign: "Pope John is the enemy of all things.. palace of the Lateran, that once sheltered saints and is now a harlot's brothel.. John a little time ago took women pilgrims by force to his bed, wives, widows and virgins alike.." At this time of the "papal pornocracy" and general malaise in Western monastic life, which reflected the need of reform in the Latin church, the holiness of life in the Greek monasteries was greatly admired p109 Byzantine religion, diplomacy, food, and drink, manneres, ceremonial, etiquette and official splendor, as a matter of policy and personal simplicity, went against the mores and customs evolved in the Germanized West #@# Obolensky [Oxford], ByzCommonwealth, svots.edu 1982 orig Weidenfield 1971 ISBN 0-913836-98-2 pp22-3 No records have survived to tell us what happened to the autochthonous inhabitants, Illyrians and Thracians, who managed to survive this destructive flood. Some of these natives, partly or wholly Romanized, probably retreated before the Slavs into the mountains. In tenth and eleventh century documents two peoples make their first appearance in the Balkan peninsula: the Vlakhs and the Albanians. Their origin has been the subject of much controversy. `Most scholars today regard the Vlakhs as the descendants of the semi-Romanized.. Middle Ages they emerged as nomadic, Romance-speaking shepherds from their mountain retreats, from the Haemus, the Rhodopes and the Pindus, and descended into the lowlands of Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly.. Probably descended from the ancient Illyrians, the Albanians are believed to have retreated before the Slav invaders into the highlands which they still occupy... sudddenly in the fourteenth century, the Albanians began to descend from their mountainous homeland; in a great movement of expansion which has been compared in its scope and impetus to the earlier Slav invasions, they spread eastward and southward. By the following century we find them thick on the ground, in Thessaly, Attica, Boetia, Euboea and Peloponnese, colonizing and farming the countryside, moving as nomadic shepherds across the land, or serving as soldiers in the armies of the local Greek and Frankish lords. It is not surprising that the mountains of the Balkan peninsula in many ages provided refuge for dissident and freedom-loving minorities who have sought to resist the empire builders of the plains. In a Greek folk-song glorifying the military deeds of the klephts, the irregular fighters against the Turks, the proud boast that the mountain is the stronghold of liberty is uttered by Mount Olympus p37 devastations caused by the Avaro-Slav invasions: for two and a half centuries after the death of the Emperor Maurice (602) not a single Balkan city north of Serdica is so much as mentioned in contemporary documents. And when, in the ninth century, the darkness begins to lift from the peninsula the Roman place names have mostly vanished, superseded or transformed by a new Slav nomenclature p80-3 Isidore of Seville could write with scarcely any exaggeration that at the beginning of Heraclius' reign "the Slavs took Greece from the Romans".. Porphyrogenitus, writing soon after 934 and describing the Peloponnese, states that after the great plague of 746-7 "the whole country was Slavicized and became barbarian".. Sklaviniae designated areas occupied by the Slavs, over which Byzantium had lost all effective control but which had acquired no alternative form of central administration.. Chronicle of Monemvasia.. Peloponnesian Slavs were, it states, "subject neither to the emperor of the Romans nor to anyone else" p86 medieval Arab geographers and of King Alfred of England; most modern historians, while recognizing that it contains legendary features, regard Constantine's account [ditto Clavdios Ptolemaios 200AD] of the migrations of the Croats and the Serbs to the Balkans as substantially true. The ethnic origin of the Croats and the Serbs has also provoked some scholarly controversy.. last wave of the Slavonic invasions of the Balkans, or as alien people, possibly of Caucasian origin [ditto Rus/Scyth/Magog], they were absorbed in the course of time by the Slav who had preceded p90-2 "Old Great Bulgaria", undoubtedly built with East Roman support, and extending from the Caucasus to the Don and probably as far as the lower Dnieper.. broke up under the blows of a new invader from Asia, the Khazars, who struck westward from the lower Volga.. Bulgars advanced to the neighborhood of Varna and occupied the Dobrudja.. new home in the Balkans had, during the past eighty years or so, been colonized by the Slavs.. Moesian Slavs were subjugated by Asparuch's horde.. Byzantine writers continued to differentiate between Bulgar and Slav inhabitants of this realm. But the assimilation of the Turkic Bulgars by the far more numerous Slavonic population p102-3 Theophilus restored the university of Constantinople and appointed as its principal teacher the celebrated scholar Leo the Mathematician.. revival of classical studies and the prestige of secular learning, already apparent in Theophilus' reign, gathered strength after the defeat of Iconoclasm p106 Byzantine writers considered that the defeat of the Slavs at Patras marked the end of the Slav occupation of the Peloponnese. This was an over-optimistic view, for the Peloponnesian Slavs revolted again several times; and on the slopes of Mount Taygetus Slav tribes retained until the Turkish conquest of the fifteenth century their language, their ethnic identity, and a tradition of insubordination to the imperial government p112 Orthodox Christianity as a means of achieving cultural assimilation of the Slavs was enhanced, in the Balkan provinces of the empire, by the deliberate use of Greek as a liturgical language. [Ignatiev's Phyletism rears its ugly head again] By contrast with the Slav lands that lay beyond the empire's borders, where, through a combination of linguistic tolerance and tactful diplomacy, the Byzantines encouraged the propogation of Christianity in the Slavonic vernacular [compare to Germans worshipping in Latin], their policy at home was Hellenization through Christianization. In the Slavonic lands now reintegrated into the framework of the Byzantine provincial administration, Greek was not only the idiom of the church but the language of a civil service, of the armed forces and of polite society.. claim made in the 1830s by the German scholar Fallmarayer that the Greeks of today are predominantly of Slav and Albanian stock [compare ancient statues to modern Greeeks; cf Robert Byron, Byz_Achievement] p165 Bogomilsim.. considered primarily as an example - the most strikingly successful in the whole of the Middle Ages - of a spontaneous and popular movement of resistance to the patterns of Byzantine culture which were imposed upon their subjects [Marxist theories debunked JonesJTS59].. fought Byzantine Christianity on its own ground and with its own weapons.. preached a cosmological dualism.. recognized that the Devil is inferior to and ultimately dependent on God [rel: Gnostic, Manichean, Mazdaist, Zoroastrian] pp210-1 influences of the Byzantine and the German empires, met and were fairly evenly balanced.. 1004 Hungarian troops helped the Byzantines to capture Skopjle from Samuel. Despite his recognition of papal authority, Byzantine Christianity held a strong appeal for Stephen.. influence of these monasteries. The veneration of Greek saints was widespread.. Crown of Constantine Monomachus; its fragments, which were found in Hungary during the last century by a peasant ploughing [Hilferding, out to canonise Jan Hus?] p224-5 [568-76 Turk-Byz alliance] artless candour and simple moral values of their nomadic dupes.. sixth century Turks adorned their Central Asian capital with a luxury that surprised even the Byzantine ambassadors; yet they were capable of rejecting what they regarded as the evils of civilization.. sheer distance between Constantinople and Central Asia made the exchange of embassies a strenuous and costly business.. Turkish alliance would have almost certainly involved the Byzantines in a war on two fronts - against the Avars in Europe and the Persians in Asia.. Byzantines missed something of an opportunity.. By the second half of the sixth century, Christianity, admittedly in Nestorian garb, had made many converts in several regions of the Turkish Empire, notably in Khorasan, Afghanisan and the area round Bokhara and Samarkand.. when the Byzantines and the Turks next met each other face to face it was on the eleventh century battle-fields of Asia Minor p231 730-40, when some Jewish beliefs are said to have been adopted by the Khagan Bulan.. conversion of the ruling circles of Khazaria to Judaism took place in gradual stages, and that their final acceptance of Mosaic law was delayed until the second half of the ninth century. In preferring the Jewish religion both to Christianity and to Islam, they were probably moved by the desire to remain politically and culturally independent both of Byzantium and of the Arab Khalifate. The failure to convert the Khazars to Christianity did not substantially affect the friendly relations between Byzantium p234 Patriarch Photius, in a letter to the archbishop of Bosporus, expresed with characteristic regard for the niceties of language [resent? cf Redfield p65] his gratification at the thought that the Black Sea, formerly so inhospitable (axeinos), was now becoming not merely hospitable (euxinos), but also pious (eusebes) p238-41 Swedish Vikings, or Varangians, who used the Volga and later the Dnieper for their trading expeditions.. Russian Primary Chronicle, the earliest native historical source, compiled in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries.. middle of the ninth century a group of Varangians from Scandinavia seized control over the cities of northern Russia, thus conquering a territory, inhabited by Slav and Finnic tribes, which stretched from Lake Ladoga and Beloozero to the middle course of the Western Dvina and to the lower Oka. According to the chronicle they were led by three brothers, of whom the eldest, Ryurik, established himself in Novgorod. The second stage was achieved soon after, when two Viking earls, Askold and Dir, sailed down the Dnieper and captured Kiev from the Khazars. Finally, about 882, Oleg, a relative of Ryurik, incorporated Novgorod and Kiev within a single realm, thus completing the politics unification of the greater fart of the Baltic-Black Sea river route, from the Gulf of Finland to a point on the Dnieper some hundred miles north of the rapids.. people of Gog and Magog who, as everyone knew, had been enclosed in the Caucasian mountains by Alexander the Great. Had not Ezekiel prophesied their invasion from the north? These words of his were much quoted in Constantinople during the summer of 860: "And the word of the Lord came unto me, saying: Son of man, set they face against Gog and the land of Magog, the prince of Rosh [Rus!] (Ez. XXXVIII, 1-2, Septuagint version) [Obolensky views Magog as positive while most westerns see them as end-time evil. Great Alex chased them up Cavcas.] p271 Vlachs [diff spell p22] , whose Romance dialect.. eleventh and twelfth centuries in much the same guise as today: transhumant shepherds, moving their flocks od sheep and goats between their winter settlements in th eplain of Thessaly and their summer pastures in the Pindus and Grammos [Grammos is the highest peak of the Pindus Alps] Mountains. Their seasonable migrations are later attested in other parts of the Balkan peninsula. The Byzantines knew them mostly for their incurable insubordination: the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela [cit tr N W Adler, London 1907, p11], who visited Greece in the second half of the twelfth century, describes the Vlachs of Thessaly as follows: "They are as swift as hinds, and they sweep down from the mountains to despoil and ravage the land of Greece. No man can go up and do battle against them, and no king can rule over them... They are altogether lawless" p274 The Byzantization of the Slavs in Greece was now virtually complete. Only in the remoter areas of the Southern Peloponnese did Slav tribes retain their language and their sence of ethnic distinction until the end of the Middle Ages: these recalcitrants were the Melingoi, on the slopes of the Taygetus Mountains, and the Ezeritai, who lived on the northern and eastern coast of the Gulf of Laconia, from Gytheion to Vatika Bay near Cape Malea. Both tribes revolted several times against Byzantine rule, and in the second half of the thirteenth sentury were granted local autonomy and the right of bearing arms. But this was an exception [vs Biddle on Maniates] p281-2 renounced their independence to become the tenants or serfs of some territorial magnate no doubt regarded their new status, which at least preserved them from starvation.. pronoiarioi must have often appeared as alien exploiters.. anti-Byzantine sentiments were exploited [vs JonesJTS59] by the dualist heretics in Bulgaria, the Bogomils and the [Cathar-] Paulicians.. Bogomils [Bosnian mulsims claim decent from them] preached a doctrine of civil disobedience.. social anarchism.. revolt, allied with the Pecheneg and Cuman p298-9 Andrew Bogolyubsky, the powerful prince of Vladimir in North-East Russia (1157-74), whose autocratic behaviour resembles more closely the policy of the future Muscovite rulers than that of his Kievan predecessors.. Cumans (whom the Russians called the Polovtsy), became during the next few years masters of the steppe.. even greater menace to Kievan Russia than the Pechenegs.. virtual severance of the lower Dnieper route by the Cumans imperilled Kiev's links with Byzantium.. retreat step by step from the fringes of the steppe towards the remoter forest areas. By the 1140s Kiev had begun to yield its political and economic dominance in Russia p301 Manuel I's diplomacy had consolidated Byzantium's political influence over the more important Russian principalities.. obligation assumed by Russian princes to supply troops for the Byzantine armies p302 [Nicetas Choniates ca 1200] acknowledged that the salvation of Byzantium was due on this occasion to "the most Christian nation of the Russians" whose "God-mustered phalanx" relieved the [Cuman] pressure on the imperial capital.. demonstrated their loyalty to the empire only a few years after the Bulgarians and the Serbs had rebelled against it p311 capture of Kiev in 1240, made the country a political dependency of the Tatar khans of the Golden Horde. The next 240 years the princes of Central and Northern Russia paid tribute to and ruled by the grace of the sovereign of a Turko-Mongol empire whose capital was on the lower Volga.. And yet, however much the political links between the different parts of the commonwealth were loosened in the thirteenth century, neither the Fourth Crusade nor the Mongol conquest of Russia was able to break them completely p312 Nor were the Serbs slow to realize that the decline of Byzantine power required a rapprochement with the West.. divorced his Byzantine bride, the emperor's daughter; he later married the grandaughter of Enrico Dandolo, the formidable Doge of Venice who, more than any other leader of the Fourth Crusade, was responsible for the sack of Constantinople.. Daniel, prince of Galicia and Volynia [Yuschenko territory, "Polish" Ukraine], offered to acknowldege papal supremacy. In 1253 he was crowned king with a crown sent by Innocent IV. The failure of the [promised anti-Tatar] crusade to materialize, and the reimposition of Tatar control over Daniel's lands ended this shortlived attempt to bring Western Russia into the orbit of Latin p313 The Byzantine patriarchate, the traditional guardian of Orthodoxy, had been expelled from Constantinople; but it had found refuge in Nicaea, whose rulers regarded themselves as the lawful successors of the emperors of Byzantium.. Nicean period (1204-61) that these three [Bg Sb Ru] nations obtained ecclesiatical priveleges which in different degrees increased the autonomy of their respective churches.. extorted through diplomatic pressure from a weakened empire in exile p327 By the second half of the eleventh century, in place of the free peasant-soldier commune [puhlease, what next, a Khazar kibutz?], two types of land holding had become prevalent in the Byzantine Empire: on the one hand the large hereditary estate of the civil or military magnate and, on the other, crown property handed out to eminent Byzantines or foreigners to administer, usually in return for military service, free of state taxation. The latter system was called pronoia (literally, "care").. differed from a land grant of the first type in that it was held for a limited time, usually until the recipient's death, and was, until the second half of the thirteenth century, inalienable. From the time of Michael VII, however, pronoiarioi were allowed to bequeath p339 1380, when the Russian troops commanded by Dimitri, prince of Moscow, defeated a large Tatar army at Kulikovo p340 should he reside in the historic see of Kiev, which from about 1362 was on Lithuanian territory, or in Moscow?.. In the fourteenth century the Lithuanian ruling classes were still predominantly pagan; but they had the tiresome habit of trying to blackmail the Byzantines by the threat of going over to the Roman Church p341 dashed in 1386, when Olgerd's son Jagiello was baptized into the Roman Church and married the queen of Poland. Through this marriage Lithuania was united with the Polish Kingdom, although it included a large Russian Orthodox population within its borders, moved outside the orbit of Byzantium p358 Historians are understandably fond of citing [Cremonan] Liutprand's famous description of an imperial audience in the palace in 949: the immense throne which by some hidden mechanism would suddenly levitate to the ceiling, with the emperor in it; the gilded tree with its singing birds of bronze, the mechanical lions which roared and beat the ground with their tails. It may well be that this display of Byzantine technological skill overawed the envoys of the less sophistcated nations of Eastern Europe. p365 Boris' conversion was followed by a repression of the Old Bulgar aristocracy and an attempt to entrust public offices to Slavs, the former subject-race, who had long been exposed to the influences of Byzantine Christianity. [Gosh, thought all in Bogomil rebellion?] Similarly in Hungary the Slavs seem to have played an important role in transformation of the Finno-Ugrian Magyars from nomads into farmers and in the religious conversion p390 'prayer of the heart" had gradually become linked with the frequent repetition of the "Jesus prayer" ("Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy upon me") and with certain bodily excercises (such as regulation of breathing [inhale Lord, exhale mercy]), designed to aid spiritual concentration. Gregory of Sinai, one of the foremost teachers of Hesychasm, was certainly no innovator.. goes back to the traditions of fifth century Christian ascetism, if not earlier p468-72 restatement of Philotheus' theory of "Moscow the Third Rome" in the Act instituting the patriarchate of Moscow in 1589.. Neither Ivan III nor any of his successors ever claimed that the marriage with Zoe gave thema right to this heritage.. 1582 Ivan IV declared to the papal envoy, Antonio Possevino: "we do not want the realm of the whole universe".. "Moscow the Second Kiev", not "Moscow the Third Rome" was the hallmark of their foreign policy.. Philotheus' views were strongly tinged with eschatological elements: the Third Rome was for him but a prelude - possible a brief one - to "the kingdom of which there shall be no end".. [Nikon vsOldBlvrs] "I am a Russian.. but my faith and religion are Greek".. [Although programmed panSlav conditioning eventually pops up, author's scholarly soul resumes control] p473-5 Early sultans strove to appear in the eyes of their Christian subjects as the heirs of East Rome [Senate/Synkletos as Divan until 1923 with Greek members].. Greek merchant aristocracy of Constantinople.. Phanariots.. growing influence upon the Church's organs of administration. Some of them, like the Cantacuzeni, claimed descent from Byzantine imperail families.. Rumanian historian [Iorga, 1935] has described as "Byzance apres Byzance", began to take shap north of the Danube. He most remarkable of these neo-Byzantine rulers was Basil Lupu (the Wolf), prince of Moldavia from 1634 to 1653. He managed the fiances of the patriarchate.. During the next century and a half the princes of Wallachia and Moldavia belonged to half a dozen or so prominent Greek families: some of them like the Cantacuzeni, acquired large estates in the principalities and intermarried witht he local Rumanian nobility; others like the Mavrocordatos and Ghikas (the latter a Hellenized Albanian family), were appointed by the sultan from among the Phanariots of Constantinople p476 "The death of Byzantium", of course, never wholly came about in the Balkans, any more than it did in Russia. For a century after 1821 the imagination of the Greek people and their statesmen continued to be haunted by the "Great Idea" of restoring the Byzantine Empire by the recapture of Constantinople. These ambitions were finally wrecked by the Asia Minor disaster of 1921-2 #@# Iorga Byzantium After Byzantium ISBN 973-9432-09-3 [depends heavily on Ghedeon, Regel, Gerlach; very paranoid!] p34 In 1492, the king of France, who wished to buy the right to the empire of the Paleologus family, issued a ruling for "Andrew of Paleologus, prince of Constantinople, seignor of Morea" p80 The Turkish conquest had not yet reached the Holy Mountain, whose inhabitants had not wasted any time in recognizing the new laic power that encircled their fortress with its rule. Under the guidance of the priest, the two monasteries, with their four, or even six, up to seven thousand monks, were not living as isolated from the world as one might think and as peacefully as the severe asceticism of their discipline required. After an attempt to dominate the ecumenical seat through their chosen ones, patriarchs like Matthew II, Dionysius, Mitrofan III, or Ioasaf II found refuge there. A Cantacuzenus lived his last days there. Just as in Byzantium the bishops were arguing about supreme authority, the monasteries were fighting among each other for supremacy and wealth, as was the case, in the sixteenth century, in the conflict between Esfigmenos and Chilandri, in that between the Monastery of Filoteon and Lavra itself. There was, however, respect for the written word, and when Michael Cantacuzenus' manuscripts were sold in Constantinople for a very low price, the monks of Athos were among the buyers. p118 A Raul (Rali) crossed into Russia and a Paleologus, Constantine, driven away by intrigues, settled among the Tartars in the Crimea p119 Michael Cantacuzenus, having a castle at Anhialos, became the leaseholder of the salt mines and the fish markets of the empire and great revenue officer; as "great merchant" (megas pramateutns) he received 60,000 ducats per year from the sultant to import precious furs from Russia through his agents, continuing the commerce initiated by Chalkokondyles. He was able to obtain for the sultan sixty galleys.. Guarded by a janissary, sealing his letters with the two-headed eagle, and considered by the Greeks "the pilar" of their nation, Michael Cantacuzenus was a scholar who had gathered at Anhialos a wholelibrary which included the chronicles that talked about his imperial ancestors. He had at his disposal not only the patriarchal and episcopal seats, but even the Romanian thrones. The history of the patriarchs of Constantinople, which we have mentioned, was dedicated to him. He was "the god" of the Greeks p120 Michael Cantacuzenus was, therefore, powerful enugh to be able to cause the fall of Patriarch Joasaph II p121 Owning their pew in the church and their lot in the cemetary, his family maintained their authority. Anthony Cantacuzenus had three sons.. Andronicus was able to buy back his father's house in COnstantinople and was hoping to regain the castle in Anhialos as well p125 Dumitrascu Cantacuzenus, the reliable tool of Ottoman politics, was chosen, during the period of the wars with Poland, to be made prince of endangered Moldavia; his daughter remained however in Constantinople p126-7 In general, Greek life in Constantinople was very luxurious. All the travelers mention the arrogance with which the women covered their heads with gold threads, showing off their splendor of their bracelets, golden shoes, and exuberance of precious stones. Not even the empress of Germany could equal them in this respect.. They tried to speak the most elevated Greek, while the language spoken in Athens was considered the most corrupted p130 creation by Jeremiah II of a new patriarchate in Moscow (January 1589), where he went, accompanied by the metropolitan of Monemvasia and of Elassona, arrogating to himself the right to turn bishops out of office, like the one at Kiev, and to create ecumenical centers, like the one in Vilna. The establishment of a new patriarchal church, with its four metropolitans, six archbishops, and eight bishops corresponded to the work done by Niphon in Wallachia almost a century earlier. Three patriarchs - Sofronie IV of Jerusalem, the Patriarch of Alexandria, who also represented Joachim VI of Antioch, the first one being present at the synod of 1593, and Meletie Pigas having to refuse the Byzantine throne, whose locum tenens would nevertheless become soon - sent in 1592 the synodic document confitming this creation. One of the emissaries of the ecumenical church was Dionysius Rali, archbishop of Trnovo, who would play an important role as a crusader, which shall be discussed later on. They also dared to intervene in the affairs of Poland, where the synod at Brest had voted the union with the Church of Rome. For a long time onward, the Ecumenical Church and its branches would know how to keep the Russian Church under control: thus, in 1663, the four Greek patriarchs established regulations regarding the seat in Moscow, and the great decisions against Patriarch Nikon of Moscow would be taken, during the synod of 1667, in the presence of Patriarchs Paisie of Alexandria and Macarie III of Antioch #@# Byzantine Achievement, Robert Byron, Russell, 1964 [orig 1929] p9 Fallmerayer, whose history of the Morea, published in the thirties [1830s], convinced a Europe anxious to believe it that the "Modern Greek" was of Slavonic origin. With sensation of relief, it was decided that the descendants of Pericles and Pheidias were extinct.. From then onwards the world at large, eyes riveted on the dead pillars of the Parthenon, has discounted the inhabitants beneath them as the unmoral refuse of mediaeval Slav migrations, sullying the land of their birth with the fury of their politics and the malformation of their small brown bodies p11 The theory of Slavic origin, derived from a superficial observation of village names.. simultaneously forgotten that chiselled noses, proud lips and rounded chins are still Greek features p13 In the country a regular formula of personal interrogation is the preliminary to all hospitality. The results from the insatiable attitude of enquiry, a universal, and to the Briton, extraordinary, respect for learning, for books as books, and for any aspect of cultural ability. From the highest to the lowest, even to the illiterate, this national trait has endured through the ages p16 conceit so cosmic.. Hellenic superiority over "the barbarians" p17 Greek people has endured, poised between East and West, child of neither, yet receptive to both p18 In face of common-sence euphony, they persist in maintaining a pronounciation invented by the ignorant English scholars of the sixteenth-century, which utters "basilews" for basileus instead of "vassilefs," "kilioy" for xilioi instead of "hilii" - thus rendering moribund a language which, after two milleniums, differs from Euripedes considerably less than modern English from Chaucer p30 Further, the Emperor was in theory, and frequently in fact, chosen by election, by the Senate, the Army, and the People in the Hippodrome. Equally might this triple ratification be revoked. The balance between individualism and political efficiency in the Byzantine state was maintained by and Oriental autocracy fettered by a Roman bureaucracy and supported by a Greek democracy p31 What the Byzantine sought through Christ, we may through a mathematical rationalisation of the intuitions. The goal is the same. Had Christianity remained as the Byzantines perfected it, and not been distorted by the common sence of the Latin peoples and the roamntics of the Northern, it might have merged harmoniously with the present mode of thought. p59 While Plato and Aristotle were groping the ladder of logic towards an impersoanl God conceived on the lines of a clandestine broadcasting-station, the Jews, voiced by their prophet-chroniclers, were building from their religious experience a permanent distinction between the motives and conceptions of man, and those of the parental, if terrible, Force of his restraint p65 Just as the Hellenic pictorial ability, carried centuries before the prejudice of Buddhism and Mazdaism against representational art by reason of its prosletysing efficacy, so now it was to fulfil the same function for Christianity, moving Westward p89 But a transformation was being wrought in the religious life of the Empire: the monastic reforms of Theodore of Studium, which, as foreshadowing those of Cluny, were destined to excercise a profound effect on the whole of Europe, had produced not only a more ordered and active asceticism than formerly, but had infused the church with the ideal of complete emancipation from the authority of the state p90 Finally, the breach with Rome which the [iconoclast] controversy had provoked, and which had been accentuated in 800 by the Pope's coronation of Charlemagne as rival Emperor of the West, was consummated in 867 by a formal though temporary schism p119 those principles of justice which form the basis of society in twentieth-century France or Scotland, were formerly as deeply engrained in the subjects of the Greek Empire p95 A revivial in classical culture was reflected in an unpractical trend of politics. An anti-militarist movemement, directed against the semi-independent leaders of the Asiatic regiments, resulted in the neglect of the border fortresses and the reduction of native troops in favour of mercenaries, who themselves revolted p135 Within the city, the various craftsmen were organised in guilds, which were under the supervision of the Eparch. Consumer and producer alike were protected from the middleman; wages and hours were fixed; and any form of trade-competition or possibility of the concentration of trade-control in the hands of an oligarchy of capitalists, was out of the question p141-2 The part played by this wealth in maintaining the stability of the Byzantine Empire is apparent by contrast with the states of Western Europe, where permanent services, such as a standin army, fleet, or bureaucracy, were almost entirely precluded, owing to the difficulty of raising sufficient coin for their wages. As a rule, the only rewards a king could offer his adherents were land and hereditary privelege. Hence the perpetual expansion of feudalism and the perpetual scourge of civil war that accompanied it. In the East on the other hand, the political organism rested on its money, and in the end failed with it. p145 Racial and religious distinctions, save where Christological heresies were concerned, were viewed with toleration. The Jews, hounded over the face of the earth, found refuge behind the walls of Galata. And the crusaders, to their inexpressible indignation, discovered in the city a Saracen mosque of official construction, where services for the Moslem residents were conducted in the full light of day p147 Each [ethnic] colony had its own bazaars, its own courts - abolished by the Turks in 1923 - and its own baily, who combined the functions of magistrate and captain p167 Finally, at the back of the iconoclast movement, whih assaulted the Orthodox Church in the eight century, lay a degree of spiritual aspiration, which provided a key to undersanding not only of all future Protestantism, but of the Byzantine cultural ideal and of that of the twentieth century with it p240 Greeks without education are as bees in mid-winter. Moreover, as Rambaud has written, "in the Greek Empire, the humanities seemed indispensible, and at the same time, sufficient, for the formation of civil servatnts." p272 Franks had stabbed their fellow-Europeans in the back. And had the Mongol advance reached Nicaea, the rallying-point of the Greeks, while the Latins were in occupation of Constantinople, the East must have conquered then and there. As it happened, the Mongol incursion so weakened and divided Moslem Sultanates as to avert the decision of the struggle for two centuries more p273 The fought not for gain, but for Christ, Emperor, and civilisation. For five centuries, until Manzikert, they remained to all intents and purposes invincible pp299-300 Under the strain of the last years, the faults of the unchanging Greek had pushed to the surface. Greedy of money, mentally exercised ovet the very chaff of theology, seeking compensation for misfortune in overweening conceit, these men were scarcely average. Even in their appearance there was something unearthly: the Florentines, at the Council of 1438 regarded with astonishmnet their demeanour of pedantic vanity, their long beards and paintedeyebrows, their flowing mantles and outlandish hats p309 political unit of early Russia was the city-state.. Tartar invasions of the thirteenth century, the growing civilisation fostered in the cities, was driven into the interiro to develop itself; and the economic basis of the Russian state, divorced from commerce, became agricultural. During this period, it was only the Byzantine cultural foundation that saved the RUssian identity from total immersion by the Oriental migrations #@# Charanis [Rutgers], Stud Demogr Byz Emp, London, 1972 pI-17 In his account of the revolt of Thomas the Slavonian (820-23) against the emperor Michaeal II, the Byzantine historian Genesius lists a variety of peoples from whme the armies of the rebels had been drawn: Saracens, Indians, Egyptians, Assyrians, Medes, Abasgians, Zichs, Vandals, Getae [Vlahs], Alans, Chaldoi, Armenians, adherents of the heretical sects of the Paulicians and Athinganoi pII-27 We also know that early in the ninth century the Paulician Sergius Tychikos corresponded with a certain Leo the Montanist. The reference to this correspondenceis rather significant, for it indicates that the Montanists, who henceforth cease to appear in history, may have merged with the Paulicians. This would explain the apparent increase in the strength of the Paulicians in Phygria and the consequent apprehensive attitude toward them of the ecclesiastical and imperial authorities of Constantinople pII-34 significance of the Armenian element in the Byzantine Empire is further illustrated by the number of persons of Armenian descent who came to occupy influential positions pII-39 Croats and Serbs, representing the last Slavonic wave to reach the Balkans, came with the consent of Heraclius and settled in the upper territory of the peninsual, the Croats in Dalmatia as far as the Sava, the Serbs in the region of the Urbas and the Morava, the ancient Margus.. native Illyrians and Thracians of the occupied regions retired into the mountains, where they remained unnoticed till the eleventh century, when they emerged as Albanians and Vlachs pII-41 Despite the Slavic flood, the Greeks held their own in eastern Peloponnesus, in central Greece, including Attica (a region which is known to have been a theme as early as 695), and of course, in the islands. A number of strongholds are known to have remained in the hands of the Byzantine... These strongholds, even Thessalonica, were not great urban establishments in the seventh century, nor for that matter in the eight, but they were to serve as centers for the pacification, absorption, and eventual Hellenization of the Slavs in Greece.. Slavs in Greece proper were absorbed and disappeared from history. Fallmerayer's statement that there is no real Hellenic blood in the veins of the modern Greeks cannot, therefore, be accepted.. Scholars have noted that whereas about A.D. 600 Sicily "contained a considerable Latin element," by 650 it "had become completely Greek in language, rite, and culture. The explanation for this, it was thought, lay in the influx of a considerable number of Greek-speaking elements from Syria and Egypt.. pII-43 Latin ceased to be studied and was eventually forgotten. An emperor of the ninth century [Michael III to Pope Nicholas I] referred to it as a "barbarous Scythian language" pIII-141 The native peoples of Asia Minor, for instance, were not, at least as late as the beginning of the ninth century, as thoroughly Hellenized as is generally believed. This is shown not only by the fact that some of the native languages, for instances, Phrygian, Isaurian, and perhaps also Celtic continued to be spoken past the sixth century.. certain practice of the imperial government, notable the recruitment of barbarians for the army and their settlement in the Empire, and the transfer of peoples from one region of the Empire to another.. Inherited from the pagan Roman Empire this practice was frequently resorted to throughout the duration of the Byzantine Empire.. Justinian certainly resorted to it. We know that he settled Vandals in Asia Minor and Kotigurs, a Bulgar people in Thrace pIII-145 Nicephorus, we are told, rebuil the city of Patras and settled it with Greeks brought [back!] from Calabria for this purpose.. city of Lacedaemon [cf pX-146], using for this purpose various peoples brought from Asia Minor, includign some Armenians. The peoples transferred to western peloponnesus were Orthodox Christians and no doubt predominantly Greek speaking, for the object of Nicephorus was to Christianize the Slavs who since the reign of Maurice had dominated the western Peloponnesus pIII-151 There is no doubt that transfers of population and the settlement of new peoples were major factors in military and demographics revival and economic prosperity.. It will be recalled that Paulicians were settled in Thrace in the eighth century and again in the tenth. In transplanting the Paulicians to Thrace the aim of the Byzantine authorities was "firstly to drive them out of their strong cities and forts which they held as despotic rulers, and secondly to put them as trustworthy guards against the inroads of the Scythians by which the country of Thrace was often oppressed".. Not only did they hold tenaciously to their beliefs, but converted so many of the indegenous inhabitants who for various reasons were dissatisfied witht he Byzantine administration.. "all the inhabitants of Phillippopolis [now Plovdiv BG]", writes Anna Comnena, "were Manicheans, except a few.. They increased in number until all the inhabitants around Phillippopolis were heretics. Then another brackish stream of Armenians joined them and yet another" [Alexiad, Dawes, p385] pV-237 It may be said, therefore, that the battle of Mentzikert and the subsequent loss by the empire of easter and central Asia Minor brought to an end the great role which, beginning with the end of the sixth century, the Armenians had played in the political and military life of the empire. But Armenians continued to live in the empire down to its very end pV-238 "The Armenian", writes J Laurent [RvuEtArm 1920,1,47], "was never able to fraternize completely with the Greeks. However high he may have risen in the empire, however great his fortunes may have been, however devoted the service which he may have rendered in the army and in the administration, the Armenian never became a Byzantine like others. He kept at least for himself and his private life, his language, his habits, his customes and his national religion; grouped with him were other Armenians, immigrants like hime; instead of hellenizing himself in Greece, he armenized the Greek territories he settled; he remained in the Byzantine empire an unassimilated foreign element, which on occasions became dangerous" pVII-69 The Byzantine empire was never in its long history a true national state with an ethnically homogeneous population.. To the Byzantine empire of the thirteenth century belonged that part of Asia Minor whic had been occupied in ancient times by the Greeks on the coast and by Thracians, Mysians, Bithynians, Lydians, Phrygians in the interior. But already by the time of Strabo [xiv,5,23] it was difficult to identify these peoples, for the process of hellenization had gone very far. Yet in the rural communities of the interior there remained many elements which were only superficially touched by Hellenism pVII-71 Russian scholars have attributed to the Slavs a role of major importance in the history and devlopment of the institutions of the byzantine empire. [J Min Prosvieshcheniia: Uspenspky 225 (1883)307-319, Vasilevsky (1879) 160-1] A theory particularly developed by them is that the free village community which was the characteristic feature of the rural structure of the Byzantine empire from the seventh century onward was a Slavic institution adoted by the Byzantines at the time of the estblishment of the Slavic sttlement in the empire. The important element of this theory is that the composition of each community was predominantly Slavic with communal rather than private ownership of property, THis theory is no longer accepted.. was private and not communal pVII-73 There is some evidence, indeed, that additional Slavs settled or were settled in Asia Minor after the eight century, but this evidence is general and contains no indication that these Slavs were very numerous. In his account of the revolt of Thomas the Slavonian in the reign of Michael II, Theophanes Continuatus says of the Slavs that the "often took root in Asia Minor". Uspensky seized upon this statement and inferred from it that there was an almost continuous stream of Slavs settling in Asia Minor pVII-74-5 Justinian [II] selected 30,000 from the Slavs he had transplanted, armed.. Neboulus as their leader.. against the Arabs.. deserted.. angered Justinian who "then destroyed what remained..women and children at a place clled Leucate.. recorded only by Theophanes.. denied by Lamansky.. Was it not he who.. destroy the well to do inhabitants of Cherson? pVII-80 The revolution headed by Thomas, as the ever judicious Panchenko remarks, was a social movement, complicated by religious and politcal factors. Among the followers of Thomas there were some Slavs but to assume that this fact gave to this revolt the character of a Slavic national movement is pure nonesense. No better proof for this can be offered than the fact tha the Opsikion theme, the theme where most of the Slavic settlements were located, was one of the two themes in Asia Minor which failed to support Thomas pIX-75-7 Starr [Athens,1939] has pointed out that between the death of Heraclius (641) and 1204, a period of more than five and a half centuries, the Jews suffered only three general persecutions which together covered about fifty years.. No less an authority than Henri Gregoire has states that is Starr's conclusion 'is ever revised, it will be in favor of the thesis of absolute toleration' [Renaissance (Qly) II-III NY 1945,p481].. Andronicus' chrysobull.. Janina.. clause which covered the Jews of the town. They were to be free and unmolested like the rest of the inhabitants.. Athanasius in protest of the emperor's tolerance.. Besides the Jews, the patriarch singled out the Armenians and the Turks and charged the emperor with letting them set up their houses of prayer.. reply given by John, bishop of Citron, toward the end of the twelfth century to Constantine Cabasilas, archbishop of Durazzo.. 'People of alien tongues and alien beliefs,' wrote John, 'such as Jews, Armenians, Ismaelites, Hagarites, and others such as these were permitted from old to dwell in Christian countries and cities except that they had to live separately and not together with the Christians.. [cf Massie p255] The problem of the special Jewish tax has been throroughly discussed by Andreades, Dolger and Starr, after an initial diagreement, ended by agreeing in favor of a tax pX-14 Apparently Lampros, as did also Hopf, understood by the Demenitae of the chronicle [Monemvasia], probably because neither he nor Hopf knew anything about the Sicilian town of Demena... "Some sailed to the island of Sicily and they are still there in a place called Demena and are called Demenitae [hence Maniatae] instead of Lacadaemonitae" pXIV-80 It is known from Greek and Mohammedan sources relating to the conquest of Syria and Palestine by the Arabs that many Greeks abandoned their homes and sought shelter elsewhere #@# Kazhdan, Ch Byz Cult 11&12c 1985 ucal p58 in Byzantium wealth was measured in bullion, while in the Latin world property was still the measure of prosperity p60 acquisition of land did not lead to ownership but only.. occupation and use.. #@# Kazhdan 1982 DumbOak ISBN 0-88402-103-3 p23 merchants formed the principal social grouping of the Byzantine p24 arrival of the crusading army at Constantinople in 1147, Kinnamos, the Byzantine historian of the twelfth century, noted with apparent surprise the hierarchy among the leading grup of the crusaders..radical difference between two societies: the hierarchical structure of the western world on the one hand and the lack of hierarchy in twelfth-century Byzantine.. autumn of 1189, a Byzantine embassy was sent by Isaac II to Frederich Barbarosssa, who, says Choniates, ordered the ambassadors to be seated in his presence and had chairs placed in the hall even for their servants. By doing so, comments Choniates, the German ruler made fun of the Byzantines, who failed to take onto consideration the virtue or nobility of different people and who appraised the whole population by the same measure p25 Chrysostom expresses scorn at the beginning of the treatise, the nomen_gentile, and the tendency to consider wealth as a sign of social prestige p32 even in Constantinople the guild organization declined from the twelfth century onward p33 demographic study by Angeliki Laiou-Thomadakis further shows the difference in family structure between the predonomantly Greek theme of Thessalonica and the region of Strymon, which was populated mostly by Slavs. The greek family was as a rule nuclear and individual, whereas the Slavic family was often an extended, many layered structure similar to lineage p44-5 Gold and silver coins were produced primarily for the needs of the state, such as taxation of subjects and payment of mercenaries, rather than for more purely economic... notion of just price and just profit penetrated Byzantine economic and juridical thought. John Tzetes relates a typical anecdote. He saw thathis contemporaries in twelfth-century Constantinople blamed the dealers ifn fish and fruit for selling their wares in the city market for more than they had paid frr them on the shore. Mass psychology could not accept the source of profit in this case.. Byzantine government, including the attempts to prohibit interest.. Money lending did not therefore serve the function of promoting agrarian or industrial developmetn.. Under Diocletian the basis of taxation consisted of a piece of land of definite value and extent and the individual who cultivated it. All possessions were strictly measured, and tax collectors assessed payment according ot the quantity of land and its quality in terms of implements, cattle and manpower.. Ostrogorsky stated as a general rule that the poorer the peasant, the higher the tax liability #@# Alan Harvey Eco Exp Byz Emp Cambridge 1989 ISBN 0-521-37151-1 p244 upsurge in economic activity in the eleventh and twelvth centuries is unmistakable p246 peasant holdings fragmented through repeated division among heirs.. vilages were rebuilt.. after the political upheavals of the late twelvth.. monastic foundation.. p261 Byzantine towns were so dominated by the landowning elite that the merchantile and industral groups were never able to gain control of the towns and the long-running struggles for power between townsmen and their feudal overlord, so familiar in the west, did not occur in byzantium. Urban vitality in Byzantium was most notable in the European provinces... p262 growing power of the feudal aristocracy was reflected in the greater vital ity of these towns in the eleventh and twelvth centuries, a sharp contrast with the seventh and eighth.. #@# Constantelos Christian Hellenisnm ISBN 0-89241-523-1 caratzas.com p83 St John Chrysostom, as a priest in Antioch, delivered many sermons critical of the Jews as people. In fact, Chrysostom was more critical than most Greek Fathers from any other geographical region. He accused the Jews of arrogance, malice, vainglory, hypocrisy, betrayal and ingratitude, covetousness, exclusivenes[cq], and pride of their descent. His arguments are based not only on the fact that they did not receive Christ but also on the treatment that the Old Testament prophets received from them.. Though Chrysostom did not attribute the guilt for the crucifiction of Jesus to all Jews, he described Jewish justice in the trial of Jesus before the chief priest, Caiaphas, as perverted. He condemned the Jews at the trial who cried out to Pilate "His blood be on us, and on our children" (Matt 27:25), but he did not accept it as a curse which would affect later generations. [Is it not forbidden in Judaism for humans to hold children to the crimes of their parents, and only God may punish for no more than three generations?] In the words of Chrysostom: "The lover of the human being (Christ the philanthropos) though the Jews acted with so much madness, both against themselves and against their children ([when they cried out 'let his blood be on us, and on our children' ]), so far from confirming their sentence upon their children, confirmed it not even on them.. and counts them worthy of good things beyond number".. It should be notes that Chrysostom was not less critical of Hellenes or heretics p116 We know by name some thirty-five religious minorities which existed in the age of Justinian.. Joshua Starr writes that from 641 to 1204 the Jews suffered only three general persecutions, though he stresses that anti-Jewish measures introduced by Leo III were especially severe p117 Jews of Crete complained to Patriarch Metrophanes about Orthodox Christians who molested them there, the ecumenical patriarch wrote an encyclical in 1568 urging the inhabitants of Crete to abstain from insulting the Jews or accusing them unjustly. In fact, the patriarch stated that those who raised hands against the Jews or insulted them should be anathematized, excommunicated and condemned to eternal punishment p118 Violation of Jewish temples was punishable. For example, Justinian retained a previously issued law which protected the inviolability of the synagogue. The Jews could adhere to and practice their faith. It was forbidden to molest them on the Sabbath, to violate their ceremonies or to compel them to appear in court on the Sabbath... Runciman [Crusades 1951/1964 v1 11-12,17], who refers to these sources, adds that "the part played by the Jews ([in the capture of Jerusalem by the Persians]) was never forgotten nor forgiven," and when a few years later the Arabs overran the Near East "the Jews gave them active help, serviing as their guides" [elsewhere cit Sharf Byz Jewry NY 1971] p121 hardening of Greek attitudes towards Jews in the twelfth century and later has been attributed to the changes brought about by the influence of the Crusades upon Greek tolerance. The Greeks came to be suspicious of and hate everything foreign p122 Elisa of Nisibis was greatly amazed at the freedom the Jews enjoyed in the empire. He writes: "The Romans ([Greeks]) tolerate many Jews living in their lands, protect them, allow them to officially conduct their religious ceremonies and to build synagogues. In this satet the Jews can freely state: I am a Jew. Each one of them is free to follow his religion and to pray even in public without any fear of any obstacle in his way" The Jews differed only in religion from the rest of the people, for they had been totally Hellenized p123 As a rule, explosions of misalodoxy (hostility to foreign beliefs) were paroxysms rather than the normal behavior of the Greeks p158 For many centuries all these influences survived, and Russian life and civilization felt the impact of the Ecumenical Patriarchate's missions, including its ecumenical and philanthropic outlook. "Beyond all doubt" wrote Dostoevsky in 1880, "the destiny of a Russian is Pan European and universal. To become a true Russian is to become the brother of all men.. Our future lies in universality, won not by violence, but by the strength derived from our great ideal - the reuniting of all mankind" pp 160-1 Unlike Greek Christianity, for nearly seven centuries Russian Christianity remained ignorant and even suspicious of the treasures of Greek antiquity, with serious consequences for Russian Christianity as well as intellectual and scientific knowledge. "anyone who loves geometry is abhorred by God" wrote a Russian bishop. "A spiritual sin it is to study astronomy and the books of Greece" wrote another. This attitude survived as late as the 19th century. For example, under Nicholas I (1825-1855) all works on logic (including Aristotle's) and philosophy were forbidden. While the Christian Greeks, with some exceptions, never ceased to study the ancient masters, not a few Russians spoke "scornfully of the foolishness of the Greeks," an attitude reminiscent of Tertullian and a Pope gregory the Great rather than of Justin, Clement of Alexandria, Gregory of Nyssa, Photios, Arethas of Caesarea, Leo of Synnada, John of Euchaita, Eustathios of Thessalonike and other Greek Fathers.. Fedotov "had serious doubts about the benefits of the use of the Slavic vernacular. Having received the Bible and a vast amount of various religious writings in their own language, the Slavs had no incentive to learn Greek, for translations once made were sufficient fo immediate practical needs. They were enclosed, therefore within the narrow limits of an exclusively religious literature. They were never initiated into the greater classical tradition of Hellenic antiquity. If only our ancestors had learned Greek... they could have reached finally the very springs of Greek inspiration... they received but one Book".. Florovsky admits that because the Russians had failed to adopt the classical Greek heritage, they did not acquire teh Greek inquisitive mind which had kept Byzantium ever searching, unquiet and in constant tension and renewal. "The Byzantine achievement had been accepted, but Byzantine inquisitiveness had not. For that reason the (Byzantine) achievement itself could not be kept alive" [Florovsky, Prob Old Rus Cult Slavic_Rvu 21 (1962), 1-17, esp 6-10] SOme modern scholars explain that "although Kievan was the religious offshoot of Byzantium, Russians found Greek civilization (and secular learning) largely inaccessible because of the Church Slavonic idiom and the narrow religious preoccupation of the (Russian) Christian elite" #@# John Meyendorf, Byzantium & Rise of Russia, Cambridge, 1980 repr SVOTS.edu 1989 ISBN 0-88141-079-9 LC89-28011 pp14-15 religious conflict with the now German-dominated papacy.. Yaroslav, however, may have been close to the idea of imitating the Bulgarian assumption of the imperium. After building in Kiev a cathedral dedicated to 'St. Sophia' (after 1037), in obvious imitation of the famous 'Great Church' of Constantinople, but also of the Bulgarian St. Sophia in Ohrid, he fought a bloody war against Byzantium (1043) and appointed a Russian, Hilarion, as metropolitan of Kiev (1051) p21 Ethnic Greeks, living in Russia, were not particularly popular with the local population. The Chronicles frequently accuse them of being deceitful [cit 1164 of Bp Anthony of Chernigov 'In himself he held deceit, because Greek by birth'], but generally recognize their 'wisdom' (mudrost) and refinement (khitrost), the signs of a culturally superior civilization [typical panSlav misHellene derision!] p25 Some of the more difficult texts remained for ever unintelligible in Slavic translation p34 Recognizing the inevitable, the [exile] patriarchate of Nicea consecrated St Sava as autocephalous archbishop of Serbia (1219) and, in 1235, recognized the Bulgarian patriarchate of Trnovo p37 The submission of central Asia, Persia and Northern China, including Peking, to Mongol rule was completed by 1225. In June 1223, the two Mongol generals Jebe and Subudey, having crossed the Caucasus from Persia, inflicted a crushing defeat upon a coalition of Russian and Cuman armies on the river Kalka p52 emergence in Byzantium of an articulate and convinced party of 'latinophrones', favoring union with Rome, was closely connected with the presence of Italian merchants [today represented by the Ionian-derived Italogamous "Greek Shipping" community] pp65-6 In 1340, Pope Benedict XII.. blessed Casimir's Crusade against the 'schismatic nation of the Russians' (gens scismatica Ruthenorum) and after the Polish occupation of Galicia [1240-1667], authorized the Archbishop of Cracow to annul the promises made to Detko and the Russian boyars p97-9 direct ('mystical') knowledge of God and the primacy of incarnational, eschatological and sacramental values over secular concerns. This provoked a polarization - not new in Byzantine society - between a monastic-dominated Church and the 'humanists' who promoted the study of Greek antiquity and who were becoming increasingly attracted by the opportunities in the West, particularly in Italy, with the beginning of the Renaissance. The victory of the Hesychasts encouraged trans-national contacts between monastic communities.. aiming at maintaining the values and structures of the Orthodox faith in the midst of a rapidly changing political situation in the Middle East and Eastern Europe.. [1347 Thessaloniki Abp] Gregory Palamas on the one hand denies that Aristotelian logic can serve as a criterion in showing which theological arguments are truly decisive; on the other hand, he develops at length the patristic doctrines of 'deification' (8ewsis) or communion (koivwvia), with God, which represent, in his opinion, the only acceptable context for a Christian epistemology.. position of Palamas was endorsed by the Council of 1341, and Barlaam left for Italy.. significant group of Byzantine Thomists - led by the brothers Demetrios and Prochoros Kydones - also opposed Palamism, but in the context of a deliberate trend towards a rapprochement with Italy and the Latin West p112 The monastic takeover did not occur with the hesychast victory of 1347: it was rather connected with a reaction of public opinion against the arbitrary policies of Emperor Michael VIII (1259-82), who imposed the 'Uniate' John Beccos as patriarch and, indirectly, contributed to the moral prestige of the monks who opposed him p114 Gregory Palamas himself (as also Nicholas Cabasilas) preached against usury and explained the existing political miseries as inevitable because of the injustices inflicted upon the poor [NB proSlav proTurk usurper Catacosinos & 1342 Thessalonike commune which massacred upper classes and subsequent civil war and plague loved by panSlavs but not Greeks] p122 Obviously the Arab occupation of the entire Middle East had not suppressed the prestige of the Holy Land and of ancient Palestinian monasticism.. It did not involve any spectacular modification of the liturgy, but only the structure of daily and festal services and monastic discipline, whereas the basic features of these services remained the same, as they had resulted from a synthesis between the 'cathedral' and the 'monastic' structures p126 In Byzantium, the humanists who cultivated the literary and intellectual traditions of Greek antiquity were a narrow elite, increasingly attracted by the West. Their connections [to this day] with the Slavic world were non-existent, or tenuous p128 such as the remarkable revival of monasticism, Hesychasm was bringing to Russia a more personal form of religion, which was promoting not only monastic spirituality as such, but also ideas on the deification of the body and transfiguration of the entire creation p139 This view of Hesychasm as having a stifling effect on artistic style can find further support in the fact that monks preached and practised poverty, and could not, therefore, sympathize with the extraordinary expenses required for mosaic decorations, or other works of art: some of them, including Patriarch Athanasius I and Gregory Palamas himself, were even accused of iconoclasm [Latins abhored hesychasm & iconoclasm] p155 Soon after his victory and assumption [usurpation] of the imperial throne, Cantacuzenos proceeded with the formal abolition of the metropolitanate of Galicia. The solemn manner in which this act was performed, must reflect the fact that the ecclesiatical unity of Russia was seen, by the government of Cantacuzenos, as a matter of great importance p161-2 During the following two years, the joint policy of Cantacuzenos and Moscow produced spectacular results. Not only was Metropolitan Theognostos able to visit Volhynia in 1348 and assert his jurisdiction in the area, but Symeon of Moscow - with the cooperation of both the metropolitan and the khan - succeeded in concluding matrimonial alliances between his own family and the courts of Lithuania and Tver. Increasingly, the Grand-prince of Moscow acquired the stature of leader 'of all Russia'.. Tatar policies in Russia were based on maintaining a balance among the various princes. Similarly, the Genoese influence in Constantinople and in Sarai, fully determined by crude commercial interests, also tended to support division and competition among the Rulers of Russia and, as such, contradict the ideal of a united Orthodox Commonwealth, promoted by Cantacuzenos and his friend Patriarch Philotheos Kokkinos. The year 1349, which saw the defeat of Cantacuzenos by the Genoese in Constantinople, witnessed the conquest of Galicia and Volhynia by Casimir if Poland [until 1667] p175 formal conversion of John V to Roman Catholicism in 1369 was not taken too seriously p205-7 With the Genoese in control of Galata, in Constantinople itself, and the Venetians holding solid position in the Agean and the Crimea, the Byzantine Empire could make no substantial foreign policy decision involving Italian interest without the acquiescence of either Venice, or Genoa. However, the fierce competition which opposed the two Italian republics to each other sometimes allowed for, at least, some leverage.. The only difference was that both Venice and Genoa were now treating with Murad, rather than with the Byzantines, seating or unseating Greek emperors with Turkish cooperation.. The several mentions of Genoese money, used for the promotion of a 'Muscovite' metropolitan, show that the Genoese merchants were actively involved in Byzantine and Russian ecclesiastical policy.. Mamai and his Genoese allies attempted to use diplomacy and money in re-establishing the old Mongol rule upon increasingly restless Russians p208 Loyalty to the weakening Horde was only in the interest of the Genoese, whom Philotheos - and his friend John Cantacuzenos - had always hated and whose control of Galata and all the Byzantine economy was the very symbol of the Empire's humiliation p213 [Rus Metr] Cyprian himself gives a dramatic description of the situation in Byzantium in 1379-80: 'could not leave', he writes, 'because of the great trouble and violence which oppressed the Queen of cities: the sea was controlled by the Latins, while the land was possessed by the God-hating Turks' p222-3 impending menace, Dimitri appealed to the moral authority of St Sergius, and publicly receiving his blessing for the impending struggle, he also hastily succeeded un setting up an alliance of Russian princes, which included two sons of Olgerd of Lithuania, older half-brothers of Jagiello, Andrew of Polotsk and Dimitri of Bryansk. The decisive battle took place on 8 September 1380, on the upper Don, less than 200 miles south of Moscow.. Kulikovo. For the first time since the Mongols conquered Russia, a Russian army repulsed a major Tatar onslaught.. Genoese contingent fought on the Mongol side at Kulikovo.. Genoese authorities of Caffa were already in touch with Khan Tokhtamysh, Mamai's powerful competitor.. Mamai, after his defeat by the Russians in September 1380, faced Khan Tokhtamysh on the river Kalka in the spring of 1381: utterly crushed, he sought refuge in Caffa with his Genoese allies, but was murdered there upon arrival p239 dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, which occurred in 1385.. Jagiello's personal ambition and anti-Muscovite feelings were hardly compatible with similar ambitions of Dimitri and parallel anti-Lithuanian sentiments in Muscovite ruling circles.. promised his own conversion, that of his brothers and relatives and that of all nobles and dignitaries to Roman Catholicism. He pledged to 'reunite forever his own lands of Lithuania and Russia to the crown of the kingdom of Poland.. Pope Wojtyla graduated from Jagiello university].. practice adopted in the fourteenth century by militant [fatimist?] Roman Catholicism in Central and Eastern Europe - particularly by the Hungarian and Polish kings - to assimilate 'schismatics' with pagans and therefore rebaptize p259 temporary salvation of the city came from the victory of Tamerlane over Bayezid in Angora (1402), not from either Western or Russian help.. Cyprian's main historical contribution was that of being the most active, the most consistent, and the most competent transmitter of Byzantine theological, liturgical and literary traditions to Russia #@# "Were Ancient Heresies National or Social Movements in Disguise", A H M Jones, J_Theol_Std,New Series,v.10, Oct 1959 p280 modern historians of the later ROamn EMpire, whether secular or ecclesiastical, seem to agree that certain of the heresies and schisms of that period were in some sence national rather than purely religious movements [cit esp Stein Hist_Bas-Empire Paris 1949; also Woodward Christianity&Nationalism in Latter_Rom_Emp London 1916].. Donatism to Africa.. Monophytism in Egypt and Syria, or Arianism among German p282 Donatists were certainly not anti-imperial at the beginning: they in fact appealed to the emperor against the Caecilianists. When Constantine had finally rejected their cause, the raised up the cry that the State should not interfere in religion.. But When Julian ordered the restoration of banished clergy and confiscated church property they were happy to accept imperial aid p284 leaders and apologists of the movement, men like Parmenian (who was not even an African), the learned and eloquent Tyconius, the lawyer Petilian came from cultivated and Romanized classes.. Their literature, or what survives of it, was all written in Latin p287 no trace survived of the old antagonism between Egypt and Alexandria: Alexandria was the undisputed religious capital of Egypt.. In the sixth century.. Alexandria, where the Greek element was strongest, was a stronghold of monophysitism.. aristocracy conformed for prudential p288 no hint of any anti-imperial movement, much less any rebellion, during the period of close on two centuries that elapsed between the Council of Chalcedon and the Arab conquest. The Alexandrians, of course, frequently rioted when teh imperial governement forced Chalcedonian patriarchs upon them, and considerable bodies of troops had to be used to supress the. But during periods when the emperors favoured and tolerated monophysitism, the Egyptians seem to have been contant.. That the Copts welcomed the Persian invaders there is no evidence.. Nor is there any good evidence that the Copts welcomed the Arabs p289 But the reaction of the Egyptians seems to have been confused, and uncertain, some fleeing in panic, others deserting to the Arabs, others reisting to the best of their ability. The people of Alexandria were certainly horrified when they learned that they were to be surrendered to the Arabs under the final treaty. John's [Bp of Nikiu, in R H Charles Chronicle] own attitude is significant. He regards the Arab conquest not as a deliverance, but as a calamity, the judgement of God upon the emperor Heraclius for persecuting the orthodox.. He betrays no hatred of the Roman Empire as such, and so far from rejoicing in its fall, laments the disasters which the apostasy of certain emperors brought upon it.. Egyptian church never wavered in its devotion to the homoousian doctrine enunciated by Alexander and Athanasius, and the monophysitite doctrine of Dioscorus.. more simply explained by the structure and traditions of the Egyptian church. From the earliest times the bishop of Alexandria had p290 virtually appointed all the other bishops of Egypt, and by tradition he excercised an absolute authority over them.. Alexandria claimed a pre-eminent position in the church.. loyalty to Dioscorus' memory. Hence their insistence that Chalcedon, which had condemned him, must be explicitly anathematized.. primacy of Constantinople [decided there] must have also contributed to Egyptian hatred of Chalcedon.. To turn to the Jacobite church of Syria [cit Devresse].. monophysite heresy was in the sixth century by no means confined to Syriac-speaking areas.. journeys of James Baradaeus covered not only Syria and Armenia, but Cappadocia, Cilicia, Isauria, Pamphylia, Lycaonia, p291 Phrygia, Lycia, Caria, and Asia, as well as Cyprus, Rhodes, Chios, and Mitylene.. heresy did not establish itself in all Syriac-speaking areas.. Palestine was no more, and probably less, Hellenized than Phoenicia and Syria, and we have evidence of Syriac-speaking Christian townsfolk, who knew no Greek, at Scythopolis and Gaza p292 monophysite nd Syriac-speaking areas therefore by no means coincided in the sixth century.. Not until the Arab conquest was the SYriac language particulrly associated with monophysitism. East of the Euphrates Syriac had a continuous history as a literary language, and here it was used by the churches both orthodox and heretical from the fourth century onwards. In Syria and Palestine Syriac survived only as the spoken language of the lower classes, especially in the country, and Greek was normally used by the churches, though for the benefit of the lower classes some concessions were made to Syriac.. same linguistic division existed in the monophysite church.. We possess very long and detailed accounts of the wars waged under Justinian, Justin II, Tiberius, and Maurice between the Persian and the ROman empires in the very areas where monophysitism was strongest, but there is no hint in them that the monophysites gave Persia any aid or comfort, or indeed regarded them with anything but fear and detestation p293 Armenia had been an independent kingdom down to the reign of Theodosius the Great, when it was partitioned between Rome and Persia.. had possessed their own churhc, which might truly be called national, since the early fourth century. In the middle decades of the fifth century they were involved in a struggle with Persia, which was endeavoring to impose Zoroastrianism on them, and took no part in the councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. As late as 506 they were unaware of the issues involved, and learned of them only from certain Mesopotamian monophysites who were being persecuted, at the instigation of the Nestorians, by the Persian government. They naturally accepted the views of their fellow-sufferers.. no hostility to Rome, however, for when in 572 they revolted against Persia they appealed to Justin II.. Maurice again attempted to impose the Chalcedonian position on them, but the bishops or Persian Armenia refused to attend his council, and excommunicated the bishops of Roman Armenia, who had conformed.. Goths became Arians because they were evangelized at a time when Arianism was the official.. remained Arians from mere conservatism p295 Modern historians are, I think, retrojecting into the past the sentiments of the present age when they argue that mere religious or doctrinal dissension cannot have generated such violent and enduring animosity as that evinced by the DOnatists, Arians, or Monophysites, and that the real moving force behind these movements must have been national or class feeling p297 religious beliefes were determined by a variety of irrational influences. Some were swayed by the authority of a revered theologian, or more often by that of a holy man whose orthodoxy was guaranteed by his austerities and miracles. The great majority accepted what they had been brought up to believe as children, or the dominant belief of their social milieu #@# Islam & Oriental Churches, Wm Ambr Shedd, Young Peoples Missionary Movement, 1902-3 Princeton lect, NY 1908 p67 learned doctor of the law, in the course of which, he related to us with a very evident sense of satisfaction the details of an interview between the Lord Jesus and Plato: both of whom, he said, were great physycians p75 Lane, in his Modern_Egyptians [357], remarks "that it is a very remarkable trait in the character of the people of Egypt and other countries of the East, that Muslims, Christians, and Jews adopt each other's supersititions, while they abhor the more rational doctrines of each other's faiths" p151 It is the opinion of careful observers that a portion of the Muhammadan population of the Turkish empire are the descendents of Christian ancestors, Greek, Armenian, and Syrian [cit: Hogarth, Nearer East, 176; Ramsay Impressions of Turkey, 96] p165 letters of Ishuyabh soon after the Arab conquest, he reproaches the Christians of Fars and Khurasan for having accepted Islam in large numbers, partly to avoid the loss of property entailed by steadfastness in the faith [footnote: This is true of several tribe son the border of Turkey and Parsia near Urumia. In the regions of Bohtan, Midyat and Sassun thare are Muhammadan Kurds who are said by tradition to have once been Christian. Those in Sassun are called the "Cross deniers"] p170 At Pishpek in Russian Turkestan, near the Chinese border and about three hundred miles east of the city of Taskend, is a cemetary of Christian graves, eight acres in extent, with Syriac inscriptions on the stones. Here Christians were buried for about five hundred years, from AD 850 to AD 1330, some with Turkish and some with Syriac names p173 In the lists of the Nestorian dioceses of the twelfth century and in the later history the metropolitan see of Tangut is mentioned. The evidence is barely summarized here, but it is clear that Nestorian Christianity was widely extended among Turks and Mongols of the Uighur and Kerait tribes from the regions adjoining Samarkand to Northern China and Manchuria. It may be that the Christians in China were all Mongols or Turks rather than Chinese #@# Robinsom Claremone Nag Hammadi Henrickson 1986 ISBN0-913573-16-7 p136 Diaspora Christianity was comprised of widely separated metropolitan centers, provincial capitals, travel to which involved not only overland trips of considerable distances, but especially necessitated the use of commercial traffic by ship from port to port. The shift from fishing boat to passenger ship prefigured that from farm to slum. No sooner would wandering charismatics from the hamlets sail to such a port and find themselvesin the slums of the port area than a new life style would come upon them, with all the unintentional but very real shifting of the Christian message that this entailed.. Theissen supplies a much-needed sociological supplement to my presentation worked out too exclusively in terms of the history of ideas: "Not only is the Gospel of Thomas a modified sayings tradition, but it is also a tempered gnosticism. The concrete demands are softened and transformed into a speculative mode." p137 there was one direction in which the expansion of Christianity could have been by osmosis, from hamlet to nearby hamlet: toward Syria. Theissen has made the point that one of the shifts involved in moving from the hamlet to the city had to do with language - the native languages persisted for centuries in the countryside long after the metropolitan centers had become functionally Greek, or at least with a Greek hegemony in a multi-lingual cosmopolitanism. Thus, the shift from Aramaic to Greek is less a matter of from Palestine to the Diaspora than from the hamlet to the metropolitan center, where in the case of the Diaspora the movement would tend to get stuck.. only land bridge for expansion out of Galilee hamlet by hamlet is through the Fertile Crescent, into Syria. Here the Ramaic mission could expand by small increments without any real awareness of provincial frontiers, indeed without any real need for a metropolitan point of departure. To whatever extent Jerusalem might at first have functioned as a sort of headquarters for the itinerant leader Peter from Jerusalem to Antioch might serve as a symbol for this option [hence the Prsebyterian fascination with "Greater Syria" in Kaplan's Arabists] #@# Antioch Downey Princeton 1961 [heavily refs Malalas] p107 Jews who preferred to retain their faith (and these must have been the majority) were in a politeuma which made the a quasi-autonomous unit within the Greek community, enjoying certain rights, such as being judged by their own judges according to their own law. This status was enjoyed by the Jews who lived at Alexandria and in other Hellenistic cities p108 Judea, previously under Egyptian rule, had come into Seeucid possession under Antiochus III in 200 BC. The Jews there were already divided into two camps, those who maintained strict observance of Jewish law and customs, and the "liberal" Hellenizers, who were willing to conform at least in some outward matters (such as Greek athletic exercises) to the practices of the alien culture that now dominated them. When Antiochus IV came to the throne, he found himslef involved in a series of troubles that had originated before his time among the Jews themselves. First there was a purely domestic quarrel in progress between two rival factions, the Oniads and the Tobiads, who were both Hellenizers. Then, in addition to the struggle between the Hellenizing and the "strict" Jews, there was a point of friction between the Jews who favored the Ptoemies and those who thought that their best interest lay in support of the Seleucids. In its revolt, Palestine was also seeking to take advantage of the weak position to which the Seleucid Empire had fallen after the defeat of Antiochus III by the Romans. The rebellious Jews doubtless had the moral support of Rome, though no material assistance was given them. The situation in Palestine presented a special problem in the effort which Antiochus IV was making to overcome his father's defeat by Rome; the Seleucid Empire must be unified, materially and politically, and the separatist tendencies inherent in the orthodox Jewish religion must be overcome p111 As to the presence at Antioch of a synagogue (later a church) dedicated to the Maccabean martyrs there can be little doubt; but it cannot be considered proven that the martyrdoms took place at Antioch p498 At Antioch, the first incident recorded was a clash in the hippodrome between the Greens and the Blues, the two principal circus factions originally formed to support rival charioteers but which came to have the additional function of political and religious parties. In Antioch at this time the Greens represented the Monophysites and the local Syrian elements in the population, while the Blues, traditionally the conservative and aristocratic party, supported orthodoxy and thus represented the interests of the central government p499 The Greens attacked the Blues and their Jewish allies in the hippodrome and killed a number of them, and then plundered and burned a synagogue named for Asabinus.. The Greens attacked the synagogues and burned it, and dug up and burned on a pyre the bodies of the Jews who were buried there.. Malalas reports that when Zeno, who was favorable to the Greens, was told of this incident, he was angry with the Greens because they had burned only dead Jews and had not thrown living ones on the fire #@# Brock&Harvey Holy Women Syr Orient UCal 1987 ISBN 0-520-05705-8 p4 Syriac developed specifically as a language of Christian peoples. It originated in the region of Edessa (modern Urfa, in southeast Turkey) as a dialect of Aramaic, the language of first-century Palestine. During the first and second centuries AD, Syriac spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean realm as the language of the Christian community. By the Syrian Orient.. Mespotamia, Oshoene, and Syria.. and Adiabene (modern Iraq) p5 goverend by Romans or Persians.. eastern Syrians were a religious minority in an empire largely Zoroastrian, the western Syrians were a minority of a different kind. They share the faith but not the culture of their rulers p6 Christianity first emerged in the Syrian Orient out of the Jewish communities, largely independent of the Greco-Latin churches to the west, and with a powerful spirituality born of Semitic tradition rather than that of classical Greece and Rome p7 The region has become notorious with scholars for fostering groups of gnostic inclinations; Marcionites most notably, Valentinians, Messalians, and the curiously syncretistic Manichaeans all made deep marks on the face of Syria Chrsitianity. What these groups shared, and what would emerge as a peculiarly poignant trait of Syriac spirituality, was an ascetic understanding of religious faith. For the extremist groups the understanding was based on a dualistic view of the cosmos - that the temporal, physical world is inferior to the spiritual one, if not an outright channel for evil, and that the spiritual world is the only true and good realm of the divine p9 Nowhere else in Christendom does one find so profound a sense that religious behavior is equivalent to religious belief. The believer's very life, in the most mundane sense, manifested the essence of faith. Thus the early fourth-century bishop and ascetic Aphrahat the Persian wrote a treatise on faith in which he listed the following practices to be necessary for Chrsitian life: pure wisdom, pure prayer, love, alms, meekness, virginity, holiness, wisdom, hospitality, simplicity, patience, long suffering, mourning, and purity [Patriological_Syriaca Paris 1894] Aphrahat here speaks of the vocation of all believers as demanding a manner of life that in Western Christianity (and a little later in Syriac Christianity) was restricted to monastics p10 A tremendous movement accompanied these events to bring the various areas of Christendom into conformity with the mainstream orthodox church (largely Greco-Latin) as defined at Nicea. In the Syrian Orient, changes under this movement were slow to come but deep in impact. One of the most significant changes was conforming to a structure in which asceticism was a separate vocation within the church, apart from and exclusive of the life of the laity.. Furthermore, the marking off of the ascetic life and the growth of the monastic institution retained certain distinctively Syrian features: 1. The convistion that the ascetic life was integral to the life of the worshipping community was maintained. The ascetic did not lead a life of isolated withdrawal but was inimately involved.. 2. There continued an appreciation for the individual vistuoso of ascetic practice p11 However, what must be remembered is the drenching power of symbolism for Syriac spirituality and its breathtaking pursuit of biblical imagery.. dellicacy and vibrancy of Syriac poetry in Late Antiquity made a lasting impression on the hymnography of the orthodox chuches #@# Mircea Eliade HistReligIdeas 1985 Chicago ISBN 0-226-20404-9 [Romanian Jungian] p31 In the seventeenth century, the Russian priests asked the peasants: "have you gone to Mokosh?" The Czechs invoked her during droughts p32 old chthonic Mother-Goddess Mati_syra_zemlja ("the HumidEarth Mother"), whose cult survived into the nineteenth century.. Polycephalism is found among certain Indo-European peoples (eg the tricephalic figure of the Gauls, the "Thracian Knight" of two or three heads, etc) but it also is attested among Finno-Ugrians.. with whom the Proto-Slavs present a number of analogies p33 Beyond the Indo-European heritage and the Finno-Ugrian and Iranian influences, one can identify still more archaic strata.. pan-Slavic custom, unknown among the Indo-Europeans, is the double-sepulcher. After three, five or seven years, one disinters the bones, washes them, and wraps them p34 As with other European ethnic groups, Slavic religious folklore, beliefs, and customs conserve a great part of the more or less Christianized pagan heritage. Particular interest is attached to the pan-Slavic concept of the Spirit of the Forest p36 For a long time after their conversion to Christianity, it was through the lens of this myth that the peoples of eastern Europe still justified the actual situation of the world and the human condition. The existence of the Devil has never been contested by Christianity. But the role of the Devil in the cosmogeny was a "dualist" innovation, one which assured these legends their enormous success and prodigious circulation. It is hard to be certain whether the ancient Slavs shared other dualistic notions of the Iranian or Gnostic type p52 unlimited parcelling out of the martyr's body and by the fact that one could multiply relics indefinitely [compare Jewish tefillin phylacteries].. cult attained a considerable popularity by the sixth century. In the eastern Empire, this excessive devotion sometimes became embarassing for the ecclesiatical authorities.. Agapes and banquets took place around the altar (mensa). The ecclesiatical authorities strove tirelessly to subordinate the veneration of saints and the cult of relics to the service of Christ. Finally, in the fifth centuries, numerous basilicas procured relics.. gradual transformation of the martyria into regular churches p54 sought to place one's graves as near as possible to the tomb of the saint in the hope that the latter would defend the deceased before God on the Day of Judgement.. Around the end of the ninth century, it was presumed that all the churches possessed (or ought to possess) relics.. Indeed, one can consider the veneration of relics as an "easy parallel" (that is to say accessible to the laity) of the dogmas of the incarnation, the Trinity, and the theology of the sacraments p56 First of all, the unequalled vitality of the Byzantine liturgy, its hieratic pomp, its rutual and at the same time artistic splendor. The Pseudo-Areopagite warned those who had experienced the divine mystagogy, "Take care not to disclose in sacrilegious fashion the holy mysteries among all mysteries. Be prudent and honor the divine secret" p57 The Incarnation of the Logos had made theosis possible, but it is always the grace of God whic effectuates it. It is this which explains the importance of the interior prayer (later "uninterrupted prayer"), the contemplation, and the monastic life in the Eastern Church. Deification is preceded or accompanied by an experince of mystical light. Already among the Desert father, ecstasy manifested itslef through phenomena of light.. polemic aroused by their assertion that they enjoyed the vision of the uncreated Light provided the occassion for the great thinker Gregory Palamas (fourteenth century) to elaborate a mystical theology around the Taboric light [hyperventilatory hallucination] p58 The only significant Eastern influence on Western theology has been that of Dyonysius the (Pseudo-) Areopagite. His true identity and biography are unknown. He was probably a fifth-century Syrian monk, but as he was believed to have been a contemporary of Saint Paul, he enjoyed almost apostolic authority. The theology of the Areopagite is inspired by Neoplatonism and by Gregory of Nyssa.. small teatise named Mystical_Theology that is the basis of his extraordinary prestige p59 Following the ban proclaimed in the Decalogue, Christians of the first two centuries did not fashion images. But in Eastern Europe, the ban was ignored from the third century on.. innovation followed upon the blossoming of the cult of the relics. In the fourth and fifth centuries, the number of images multiplied and their veneration became more pronounced.. principal argument of the iconophiles was the pedagogical function - especially for the illiterate - and the sanctifying virtues of the images. It is only toward the end of the sixth and during the seventh centuries that the images became the objects of cultic devotion p61 As regards the icons of the saints, John of Damascus writes: "As long as the lived, the saints were filled with the Holy Spirit, and after their death, the grace of the Holy Spirit is never far from their sould, their tombs, or their holy images." To be sure, the icons ought not ot be adored in the same manner in which one would adore God. But they belonged to the same category of objects sanctified by the presence of Jesus Christ - as, for example, Nazareth, Golgotha, or the wood of the Corss. THese places and objects have become the "recipients of divine energy" [compare Jewish objects of merit] #@# Schmemann HistRdEOrth svots.edu 1977 (1963 Holt, tr L Kesich) p9 fundamental principles of Orthodox worship were determined almost entirely by the Temple and the synagogue p18 expulsion of Christians from Jerusalem by force.. crowning point of their own Jewish tradition; they did not yet comprehend her universal, pan-human mission p21 Suetonius states that the Emperor Claudius banished all Jews from Rome in the year 49 AD because the question of "a certain Christ" had provoked outbreaks of disorder among them p23 Judeo-Christians which continued to regard the observance of Mosaic law.. tradition the so-called apostolic council in Jerusalem has remained the model.. James, the head of that Church, who summed up the deliberations and proposed a solution.. freeing the converted Gentiles from Judaic law - thereby freeing them from being included in the Jewish nation - the Church demonstrated that she was now fully conscious of her world-wide vocation p27 no less than four million Jews living in the Diaspora, whereas the whole Roman population totalled fifty million.. contrast to the Palestinian rabbis, the Jews of the Diaspora felt a need to explain their faith to the outer world.. Alexandrian Jew Philo tried to express the faith of his fathers in the categories of Greek thought. The pagans, meanwhile, were showing a growing interest.. Jews, not by blood.. synagogues that covered the whole empire p28 Constantine's conversion at the beginning of the fourth century they [Christians] were still less than 10 per cent p30-2 head of the community stood the bishop. His authority was unique. Appointed by the apostles or their successors, the other bishops, he was the head and source of the Church's life.. presbyters replaced the bishop and became his fully-empowered deputies.. destruction of Jerusalem, the apostolic sees (or "seats") of Rome, Antioch, Ephesus and Alexandria p36-7 distract attention from himself, Nero shifted the blame.. martyrdom of Peter and Paul in Rome in this period, perhaps under Nero, and of John the Evangelist in the East under Domitian (81-96).. structure of Roman judiciary enabled Christians to exist even under this condemnation. Rome had no state prosecutor; a private accuser had to bring a case against each Christian.. single denunciation was enough for the irrevocable process of accusation to result in death.. two entire centuries, the line of martyrs was never really interrupted.. condemnation by the world, is a central experience.. witness; by accepting suffering and death he affirmed that the rule of death had ended, that life had triumphed. He died not for Christ but with Him, and in Him he also received life p39 not of rapprochement between Athens and Jerusalem, but rather of a struggle through which there took place a gradual "churching" of Hellenism which was to fertilize Christian thought forever after p41 struggle with Gnosticism came a whole metamorphosis of the Church, trnsforming it into a structured, monolithic organization fortified by the authority of the hierarchy and official doctrine.. Gnostics referred to secret legends and created a whole apocryphal.. Fragments of such Gnostic "gospels" have come down to us, written in the names of Peter, James, Paul, and John p44 middle of the second century the Christian apologist Tatian composed the first harmony, or code, of the Gospels p45 For Irenaeus [of Lyons, Against Heresies] the gospels of the Gnostics are false because they are alien to the witness of the apostles: "Only that Gospel is true which was handed down from the apostles and is preserved from their time by orthodox bishops without additions or omissions" p47 In the period of primitive Christianity the Church was a community of "saints," that is, baptized, dedicated, and thus newly-purified members of the Body of Christ, and every sin was felt to be a terrible abnormality p48 "second repentance" was made possible to the excommunicant, permitting him to return to the Church and restoring the forfeited power of baptism. As gradually developed, this new chance for sinners was guarded by the requirement of confession; prolonged evidence of repentance, including various source of penance; and reinstatement only by stages in the freedom of Christians to worship together and partake of sacraments p49 development of a "discipline of repentance" - an obvious lowering of standards - does not mean a change in the Churches original ideal, but a fulfillment of its eternal task, the salvation and renewal of man.. was not yet final. Only in the last divine revelation, in the coming of the Holy Spirit, would salvation occur. This "new prophecy" had been sent by God through Montanus and his two prophetesses p51 Alexandrian school was that it was the first to attempt to reason out these dogmas as an integrated system p52 Everything is permissible if it is taken in moderation, but particularly if it is subordinated to the knowledge of God and the truth in him... Origen was one of the founders of the theory of asceticism and his influence was immense when, in the next century, monasticism arose p56 Origen started the gradual process of Christianizing Hellenism.. Perhaps without his "creative failure" the eventual triumph of Christian Hellenism would have been impossible.. Emperor Alexander Severus placed a statue of Christ in his private chapel; and finally St Jeorme called Emperor Philip the Arabian the first Christian emperor p57 Except for Nero, Decius was the first representative of Roman power to take the initiative in these persecutions as opposed to the system of private accusation followed by test. In a special edict he ordered all his subjects to prove their loyalty to the national gods by making the sacrifice p58-9 persecution passed like a whirlwind and quickly abated, but it left the Church in ruins. The question arose as to how to deal with those who had lapsed, who now rushed back for forgiveness and reconciliation..mass occurence.. "confessors" - those who had confessed their faith in Christ and paid for their faithfulness by imprisonment or torture. The Roman state had learned by experience and preferred not to create martyrs; it therefore left the steadfast Christians to rot in jail.. their authority was indisputable, and they recommended to the bishop that he accept the lapsed.. Some could be received only on their deathbeds, while others could rejoin after more or less prolonged periods of repentance.. new schism of Novatianism spread through all the churches, creating everywhere sects of the "pure" [vs exlapsed] p64 Greco-Roman world toward belief in a single God.. Constantine was a typical representative of this new religious state of mind. According to his first Christian biographer, Eusebius of Caesaria, his father had already "dedicated to the One God his children, his wife, his servants, and his whole palace" pp65-6 crowned at York, Britain, in 306.. Not until his deathbed, twenty-five years after the battle of Milvian Bridge, did he receive baptism.. been his dream to be baptized in the Jordan p68 Constantine grew angry - "What madness to plead for judgement from a man who himself awaits the judgement of Christ!" - but again yielded. WHen he was finally convinced, after so many investigations, that the Donatists were in the wrong, he let loose the full blast of state persecution upon them - the last and most terrible of his errors in the matter.. beginning of the end for the great and glorious African Church p77 first time, after centuries of semi-subterranean existence, prelates gathered from all parts of the Church, many still with the marks of wounds.. designated it for the twentieth anniversary of his reign p78-9 easily accepted the condemnation of Arianism, which too obviously distorted the original tradition; but the constructive doctrine about the Trinity contained in the term homoousion ("of one substance") was a different matter.. For most of the bishops, however, the word was incomprehensible.. Constantine, who repeated his action against the Donatists by exiling Arius and his followers.. turned their intrigues againstthe young Athanasius, recently elected bishop of Alexandria and probably the oving spirit in the creation of the new term p81 At first, it is true, the Eusebians had to give way. Constantine II demanded that all the exiled bishops be returned to their thrones. Athanasius, who had never recognized his dethronement and had been supported by the Western churches, was met with love by the people of Alexandria. But the Eusebians had a strong weapon against him: he had been dethroned by a council of bishops, and only a council could restore him p83 Roman bishops were more and more inclined to regard their primacy, which no one disputed, as a special power, and their "presiding in love" as presiding in power and authority. Thus in 190-192, Pope Victor demanded in an ultimatum that the Eastern churches accept the Roman practice of celebrating Easter.. on the first Sunday after the Jewish Passover, while in the East it coincided with the Jewish holiday p85 Athanasius appealed to Rome because he had no one left.. Eusebians wrote to Rome to make their condemnation of Athanasius universal.. But Pope Julius interpreted them in his own way, in the light of the gradually developing, specifically Roman tradition p87 homoousion seemed to them an alien and dangerous term, and they found confirmation of their fears in the heresy of Marcellus of Ancyra, who had returned to the Sabellian confusion of the Son with the Father. Yet Rome had accepted Marcellus. Thus we cannot speak of a struggle between the orthodox West and the heretical East [ditto German Arians, Pelagians and Pope Honorius] p89 in hiding he wrote his Apology to_Constantius, which was devastating for the emperor, and his History_of the_Arians, in which he laid bare the whole theological dialectic of the post-Nicene dispute. In the face of triumphant force, he [Athanasius] alone remained undaunted p93 last triumph of Nicaea, the Second Ecumenical Council p96 But behind the worship of idols, actually making it far less promitive, lay a very particular and integrated perception of the world, a complex of ideas and beliefs deeply rooted in man, which it was no easy matter to eliminate [cf Podhoretz Prophets] p98 Tertullian, has always asserted that the human soul is "by nature a Christian," and therefore even natural religion - even paganism itself - is only a distortion of something by nature true and good [flawed mem of Eden] p101 cult of saints, even of its monstrous distortions.. summoned the people to Him by whom this saint had lived and to whom he had completely given himself p102 objective truth, independent of everything else in the world, was proclaimed superior to all powers and authorities.. mind of modern man was in the making: his faith in reason and freedom, his fearlessness in encountering reality whatever it might be p105 Solitude, struggle against one's thoughts, "concentration of attention," impassivity, and so forth - all allegedly entered Christianity through the ascetic stream which in that period was growing.. connected with dualism.. Manichaeism p112 Chrysostom was more than a great preacher; he built houses and shelters for the poor, exposed the rich, and attacked luxury.. all evil, he claimed, proceeds from "these cold words: mine and thine".. "Put God in the place of your slaves; you grant them freedom in your wills. But free Christ from hunger, from the want of prison, from nakedness" p120 Constantinople was not allotted any region, and formally its bishop continued to be one of th ebishops of the diocese of Thrace, headed by the metropolitan of Heraclea p122 Aristotle on the Antiochenes and of Plato on the Alexandrians; the opposition between Semitic realism and Hellenistic idealism p124 Cyril felt that the whole essence of salvation lay in the unity of God and man in Christ, that unique Personality in whom all men came in touch with the Father, and He perceived a ???dimunistion and denial of this in the Nestorian rejection of Theotokos.. Constantinople greeted this protest with displeasure. There the sad case of Chrysostom was still well remembered; the bishop of Constantinople had been condemned unjustly and without a hearing by a council under the chairmanship of Theophilus of Alexandria, Cyril's uncle, and Cyril himself had taken part in the condemnation. Those were the years when the bishops of Alexandria had tried to put a limit to the uninterrupted growth of Constantinople's ecclesiastical influence p125 Cyril sent examples of Nestorius' teachings to Pope Celestine; they were sharply condemned by the local expert on Eastern matters, John Cassian, an abbot of Marseilles. In August 430 a council of bishops under the leadership of the pope condemned the doctrine of Nestorius. The bishop of Constantinople was given ten days from the time he received the Roman decision to recant p126-30 "One nature of God the Word Incarnate." Cyril had thought this was a quotation from Athanasius the Great, but the phrase had actually been composes by Apollinarius.. signed his works with the names of undisputed Church authorities.. Easterners should gather at Ephesus in alarm; while not wholly in agreement with Nestorius, they came primarily to expose and condemn the heresy of Cyril.. feared to act openly since the whole city was for Cyril.. caravan of Easterners finally arrived.. own council.. Roman legate, who arrived last, joined Cyril.. Cyril's council held several more sessions. It affirmed the Nicene Creed, forbidding anything to be added to it.. indignant at Cyril's procedure, silently accepted his condemnation. It can be truly said that the condemnation of Nestorius was accepted by the whole.. restore peace by removing the controversial individual from each camp: Nestorius and Cyril.. Nestorius himself resigned.. Gradually most of the Easterners also signed.. language of Antioch, but in accepting it Cyril conceded nothing p133 Ephesus on August 8,449.. "Synod of Robbers".. beatings and pressure from th epolice, all the necessary decisions were made.. Leo immediately send abassadors.. Theodosius was dead.. Another ecumenical council, first assigned to Nicaea but later transfered to Chalcedon p136 famous twenty-eight canon.. bishop of Constantinople was allotted the dioceses of Pontus, Asia, and Thrace and the bishops of barbarian peoples subject to these dioceses [actually Diaspora] p139 In the outskirts of Antioch, John Chrysostom [347-407; Nesselrode Uspensky dischronic phyletism] was obliged to preach in Syrian; Greek was no longer understood there. Modern research demonstrates with increasing clarity that the Syrian and Coptic masses felt the power of the empire to be a hated yoke [Marxist trash debunked by Jones JTS59] p140 When they backed Cyril and rioted at the Synod of Robbers, the monks were openly defending their own Church from the alien imperial center that was creeping in on them.. ethnic passions that had seethed beneath the surface found an outlet in Monophysitism, and the struggle against "two natures" threatened to turn into a rebellion against the empire itself. When the bishops returned from Chalcedon, they were met in many places by popular opposition. In order to bring the Patriarch Juvenal to his city of Jerusalem, troops had to intervene. In Alexandria the soldiers who were guarding Patriarch Proterius, appointed by Constantinople to replace the deposed Dioscurus, were locked in the Caesareum by an inflamed mob and burned alive. At first the governmnet resorted to force and tried to impose the terms of Chalcedon [ploy of Nesselrode-Uspensky-Aflaq to make Nestorians & other Arabs allies against the Turks, also debunked by Jones JTS59] p141 484, and so began the first schism with Rome, which lasted for about thirty years until 518. thus, by trying to preserve the Monophysite East, Constantinople lost the orthodox West p146 But the fatal element of Justinian's theory lies in the fact that there is simply no_place_for the_Church in it. by planting Christianity sincerely and deeply at the heart of all official acts, the great emperor actually managed not to see the Church, and therefore based his whole concept of the Christian world on false presupposition p154 Justinian resolved to settle still more firmly with paganism and with its citadel, the university of Athens, which had recently been basking in the glory of the last of its great pagan philosophers, Proclus. In 529 the university was closed and replace by the first Christian university, in Constantinople. Campaigns of mass conversion began in the capital and Asia Minor. The few remaining pagans were obliged to go permanently undergound.. papacy. Its authority was unshakable, even among the German barbarians, although they belong officially to Arianism.. papacy remained true to the empire, regardless of strained relations between them. The price of reconciliation between the churches, however, was the signing by the patriarch and the bishops of a document composed by Pope Hormisdad which was more violently papistic in content than anything the Eastern Church had ever seen before p155 masses rioted, whole monasteries had to be dispersed.. Only Palestine was wholly orthodox.. Justinian's support of orthodoxy and Theodora's of Monophysitism they claim was a political maneuver to preserve unity.. expelled monks were allowed to return to their monasteries. A huge number of them settled right next door to the emperor himself, where for decades they were a center of secret Monophysite intrigues around Theodora pp156-7 help of Theodora a certain Bishop John, exiled for heresy, succeeded in being transferred to the capital on the pretext of needing medical attention, and here concealed from th epolice by the empress, he began to consecrate priests in hi sown house.. another sect bishop, Jacob Baradai "the Ragged," travelled through Syria in the guise of a beggar.. consecrated bishoped as well. The latter soon elected their own Monophysite patriarch.. Copts and Syrians thus established their national Church.. not tragic that one ofthe main reasons for the rejection of Orthodoxy by almost the whole non-Greek East was its hatred for the empire? A hundred years later the Syrians and Copts would greet their Mohammedan conquerors as saviors [Then why were so many martyrs for their faith?] pp158-9 not Origen alone, butthe whole Alexandrian tradition with its interest in mystical and spiritual interpretation of the Scriptures, and its ideal of gnosis as a higher way, and deification.. sixth century these disputes and doubts about Origen, which had never really died down among the monks, overstepped the desert boundaries [gosh, thought were misHellenes, awaiting arrival of Nesselrode's Uspensky] p164 not accidental that the council condemend both Origen and the most extreme representatives of the school of Antioch p165 Justinian had behaved rudely, and much in the history of his reign is darkened forever by his rudeness.. monks rioting in the churches and squares p167 But those who seemed on one day crushed by state absolutism were glorified on the next as saints, and the empire was obliged to revere the heroism of their opposition and their indomitable freedom of spirit. It is enough to mention once more the names Athansasius, Chrysostom, Euphemius, and Macedonius.. When Justinian, just before his death, indulged once more his personal passion for theologizing and attempted to impose, again by state edict, the dogma of the incorruptibility of Christ's body (a subtle question which divided the Monophysites at the time), the overwhelming majority of the bishops firmly and decisively declared that they preferred exile to acceptance of heresy. He died without taking further measures p172 Christological dispute the East was torn from Byzantine Orthodoxy, preferring the historical and theological dead ends of Monophysitism and Nestorianism to enslavement under the Orthodox empire. From this point of view the victory of Islam itself must be seen in relation to the first deep religious and political crisis in the Christian world p173 Monothelitism was an attempt to interpret Chacledon in a way acceptable to the Monophysites. It was not a rejection of it but an explanation and adaptation p178 council anathematized the leaders of the heresy, the four patriarchs of Constantinople - Sergius, Paul, Pyrrhus, and Timothy - as well as Cyrus of Alexandria and Pope Honorius, whose condemnation by an ecumenical council has constantly been referred to by the Orthodox as proof that the ancient Church ignored any doctrine of papal infallibility. On the other hand, those mainly responsible, the emperors Heraclius and Constas, were passed over in silence. Nor was mention made of the two martyrs for the truth, St Martin the Pope and St Maximus the Confessor p180 Apostolic_Tradition of St Hippolytos of Rome, a document of the first half of the third century, a newly-elected bishop was always consecrated amid the congregeation of the Church to which he was elected.. bishop's marriage to the Church, according to St Paul's teaching in the Epistle to the Ephesians.. remained in his Church to the end of his days, so that a Church which had lost its bishop was called "widowed".. fourth century we encounter bishops shifting from one see to another.. Bishops were increasingly accepted as assistants, represntatives, and executives of the orders of central power, and a new institution naturally developed which had been absolutely unknown in the early Church: the episcopal synod of the patriarch p181 synod of Constantinople was formed almost haphazardly, being composed of bishops who happened to be passing through the capital.. time of Justinian and the separation of the churches, the orthodox Chalcedonian bishops of Antioch and Alexandria, competeing with local Monophysite hierarchy, were not local men but appointed from Constantinople.. patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria became leaders of small groups of Melkites [?! also p142], or Greek minorities in a Monphysite sea p185 pagans had celebrated the birth of the Invincible Sun on December 25; Christians allotted to this date the celebration of the birthof Christ, which taught men "to honor the Sun of Righteousness and to come to know it from the height of the East" The pagans had celebrated an "epiphany" on January 6, whichbecame the date of Christian Epiphany as well. The ecclesiastical cult of "Unmercenary Saints" had much in common with the pagan cult of the Dioscuri; the fors of the Christian saint's life with the models of pagan eulogies of heroes; and finally, the explanation of the Christian sacraments to the catechumens with the mysterial terminology of pagan instituions [cf German Christmas trees and Russian toll houses, also soviet mokoshism] p186 even Christian rites and sacred objects may themselves become senters of pagan veneration and may overshadow what they solely exist for: the liberating force of truth.. 530 a Byzantine monk, Barsanuphius, attacked "mechanical" religiosity p190 Byzantine liturgy in its dual form, that of Chrysostom and of Basil the Great, gradually squeezed out the ancient Alexandrian liturgy known bythe name of St Mark, as well as the Antionchene liturgy of St James [Yakov, Giacomo, Jacques], brother of the Lord p194 very earliest texts of the services for the Mother of God to be convinced that veneration of her not only did not eclipse the Christocentricism of the early Church.. Mother, from whom all humanity gained sonship on the Cross, an image of complete purity, meekness, love and self-abnegation p195 While the Bible remained the basic content and framework of the services, it had always been - the psalms, the Old Testament hymns, the reading - this framework increasingly included the creations of Church hymn writers: kontakia, stichera, and canons. First comes St Romanos Melodus p198 Byzantium can in no way be considered merely a complteted and outlived chapter of Church history. Not only does it continue to live in the Orthodox Church, but in a sense still defines Orthodoxy itself p200 ban on human images, and attempt at a certain psychological compromise wit Islam; others, the first revolt against the Church of a secular culture inspired by the emperors, and a struggle for the liberation of art from the Church; while a third group has detected a new outburst of the perennial Hellenic "spritualism" p201 painting of the catacombs.. art had to become transcendental p204 "Many think," wrote St Athanasius of Sinai, "that he sufficiently reveres his baptism who, entering the church, kisses all the icons withou paying any attention to the Liturgy and the divine service".. lost touch with this foundation and, changing into something self-contained, lapsed back into paganism.. Iconoclastic sentiments appeared at the very befinning of the eighth century among the bishops of the easter borderlands p208 "honor rendered to the image ascends to its prototype and he who reveres an icon is worshiping the hypostasis of the one portrayed" p209 Palm Sunday 815, thousands of Studite monks moved through the city in procession, carrying icons.. bloody persecution began.. final victory of Orthodoxy once again came through a woman. The Empress Theodora p210 St John of Damascus was only repeating the words of St Maxim the Confessor when he declared, "It is not the business of Caesar to engage in definitions of the faith".. outset of the struggle with iconocalsm the number of monks in Byzantium had reached a hundred thousand p211 lost to the army, the vast property of the monks escaped taxation, a whole section of the population was found to be outside state control.. monasteries had grown rich, and privileges of every sort had now begun to attract some who had little interest in the pursuit of Christian perfection.. empire was perishing, and the Isaurian emperors saved it at the price of a terrible straining.. total mobilization - similar to that of Russia under Peter the Great - was bound to give rise to questions about monsaticism.. p225 Now the basic concern of the emperors became the desire not to allow any religious disturbance, but to foster a sort of religious status_quo. Orthodoxy coincided with conservatism down to the very letter of tradition. Iconocalsm revealed for the last time the dangerous fact that religious passions could turn into political discord p226 John of Damascus.. De_Fide_Orthodoxa has remained the summation of Greek theology p230 For in Byzantium istelf in the last years of its existence we perceive a sudden return to pure Hellenism and to philosophical problems that once seemed to be solved in patristic theology p232 St Simeon the New Theologian (949-1022).. "communion with the Divine Light" which had been the purpose of monastic asceticism from the start p233-5 founder of this regulated monasticism on Athos is considered St Athansius of Athos, in whose time the famous laura that bears his name was established (960). In the twelfth century, under Emperor Alexius Comnenus, Athos was finally sanctioned as the recognized center of Byzantine monasticism. All the threads of speculative theology by which Eastern monasticism had lived since the time of the dessert Fathers converged here, and in the late Byzantine period Athos was the center of an intense theological life.. opponents of Hesychasm felt.. uncreated Light on Mt Tabor bordered on pantheism. The dispute came to concern the theological question of the nature of light of the Transfiguration.. St Gergory Palamas, a monk of Athos and later archbishop of Thessalonica (1296-1359).. defense of the Hesychasts. Catholic historians have frequently interpreted his doctrine as an unprecedented innovation.. completes and renews in a creative way the most authentic and basic tendency in the Orthodox view of Christianity.. divine energies that permeate the world p236 Prof F I Uspensky [1892] has attempted to reduce.. philosophers and mystics, he maintains, stem from Plato, while the official doctrine of the Church, including that of St John of Damascus, is expressed in the language of Aristotle p241 'The Easterners not only did not object in time to the growing mystique of papal dogmas," wrote a Russian historian [Duchesne, Paris, 1905], "they not only silently signed the papal formulations, but they themselves, by their appeals to Rome, heedless of the juridical implications, supported the sincere illusions of the Romans that the Greeks, too, shared the Western concept of the papacy" p248-50 give back the south Italian dioceses then under the jurisdiction of the patriarch.. concealed from the patriarch.. decided to prove to the weak and indecisive emperor the independence and strength.. Almost all the Byzantine arguments against the Latin rites have long since become unimportant, and only the genuinely dogmatic deviations of Rome have remained.. Donation of_Constantine.. Today everyone recognizes its spurious character.. stating that the Church of Constantinople was in error, sinful, scandalous (even ruled by women!).. summer of 1054 papal legates arrived.. leaders of papal reform, who later prepared the way for its flourishing under Gregory VII (Hildebrand). The emperor was still relying on his political agreement with the pope.. St Simeon the New Theologian, who had also criticized Rome, was obliged by imperial order to condemn publicly anf burn his writings..morning of July 16, 1054, when the people were assembled in St Sophia for the liturgy, they entered the sanctuary and placed on the altar the bull of excommunication.. legates overestimated the strength of the emperor.. popular rebellion.. emperor was forced to think of his own safety p251 1204, with the capture of Constantinople, the barbarous sacking of the city, the profaning of Orthodox sacred p253 Church actually rejected them all, despite the pressure.. Florence.. torment of the Greeks, who were fearful of the destruction of the empire by Islam and persecuted by financial pressure from the Latins - for they even lacked funds to return home p256-7 862 the Slavic Prince Rostislav of Moravia sent a request to Constantinople for missionaries who could help hims strengthen Christianity among the Slavs.. mission to the Slavs, beginin under the dual blessing of Byzantium and Rome.. Methodius stayed farther south with the Pannonian Prince Kotzel, who shared Rostislav's views on strengthening Christianity among the Slavs as a defense against Germanism.. 794 one of the Western councils had forbidden the celebration of the liturgy in any language but Latin, Greek, or Hebrew; technically, Methodius had broken the law.. Rome, which again supported Methodius p258-61 Bulgaria.. first great Slavic state.. paradoxical dualism of their relations with Byzantium.. military dream of conquest.. constant goal of the Slavic 'empires." On the other hand they had a profound, almost religious respect for it, wanted to imitate.. Bulgar khan was immediately baptized, almost on the battlefield (869), and his godfather was the Emperor Michael II himself. But what Boris had feared indeed came to pass: the bodyguard began to rebel. The newly-baptized prince inundated them in blood, but understood the omens and immediately took measures to procure ecclesiastical independence from Byzantium.. meant acceptance of Byzantine citizenship.. Now Boris began his manipulations.. appealed to Rome.. Nicholas I, enemy of Photius and one of the founders of the medieval papacy, seized joyfully on the opportunity to establish power in the East.. Boris wated a patriarch and religious autonomy. The papacy was even less favorably incline dto this than Byzantium.. semi-autnompous Bulgarian archbishopric.. concession out of necesssity, not because they had rejected one iota of the idea of Byzantiums's ecclesiastical monopoly p262-6 disciples of Methodius who had been driven out of Moravia came to Bulgria.. sent Clement, leader of Methodius' disciples, to th eregion of Ochrida in the wes of the kingdom, where the work of Cyril and Methodius had found it first fertile soil.. Christianity really developed within his soul.. passed the night in prayer. After ruling for thirty-six years, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son and withdrew to a monastery.. once more.. grandson Simeon,, (892-927) Bulgaria achieved its apogee. He had himself been educated in Byzantium, where he had studied "the rhetoric of Demosthenes and the syllogisms of Aristotle".. Almost his whole reign was spent in warfare against Byzantium.. appealed to Rome, and received the title of "Emperor" for himself and of "Patriarch" for his archbishop. True, this was pure fiction; there was no acceptance of Rome in Bulgaria at the time.. cultural blossoming under Simeon "the Hellenization of Bulgaria".. translation of Byzantine writers.. replacement of the Glagolitic (Slavic) alphabet, which had been invented by Cyril, by the Cyrillic (mistakenly attributed to Cyril), which appeared about the same time and more resembled the Greek.. Dvornik has said that Bulgaria was "Slavic by language, Byzantine by ?soirit?, and became the bearer of Byzantinism to the other Slavs, the Serbs and especially the Russians".. Once he had eliminated his enemy, it is true, Basil showed magnanimity: Bulgarian nobles were given Byzantine titles and the archbishopric of Ochrida received an apparent autonomy, but in naother, Byzantine sence.. Just when Orthodox Byzantium was falling under the blows of the Crusaders (1204) Kalojan was crowned by a Roman cardinal "Emperor of the Bulgars and Vlachs." Yet this did not prevent him from making war upon the Latin masters of Constantinople, capturing Emperor Baldwin, and, despite all intercessons of the popw, putting him to death. The unity of Christian peoples was becoming more a bitter parody. Later the orientation changed again and Ivan Asen (1218-41) entered into an "Orthodox coalition" with the Greek emperors of Nicaea, receiving in return Greek recognition of the Trnovo autonomy. Again it was recognition by necessity, which the Greeks would repudiate at their first chance pp267-9 During the intense struggle between Byzantium and Bulgaria, the Serbs fell by turns into th esphere of influence of one or the other.. 1078 the Grand Zupan Michael reeived a king's crown from Pope Gregory V.. Stephen the First-Crowned, his son,began by flirting with Rome.. changed, apparently under the influence of Stephen's younger brother. This was Sava, the monk of Athos, who there founded the famous Serbian monastery of Hilandar together with his father, the aged Nemanya, also a monk of Athos in his old age.. Sava went to Nicaea.. agreed to the autonomy.. Sava as its first archbishop.. established the ecclesiastical center of the new empire at the monastery of Zica.. crowned his borther Stephen.. St Sava was the father of both Serbian Orthodoxy and Serbian statehood.. Dushan's policy had a single aim, to capture Constantinople, unite Serbs, Bulgars, and Greeks under his rule, and eliminate the growing Turkish threat by these combined efforts. In 1346 he was crowned in his capital Skoplje, "Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks," and prior to this he had elevated the archbishop of Serbia to patriarch in Pech. He flirted with Rome, however, and was excommunicated for it by the Church of Constantinople.. Never had the dream of a Slavic replacement of Byzantium seemed so near realization. The empire was saved by Dushan's unexpected death. [regret?] p271 On May 29, 1453, after a two-day assault, the troops of Mohammed II took Constantinople. The last emperor, Constantine XI, had fallen in battle. The holy city became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria was overcome, Serbia was finally conquered in 1459, European Greece in 1495-60, Bosnia in 1463, and finally Egypt in 1517.. he had been in Constantinople before and knew Greek, and while conquering Byzantium he was attracted to it by his special sympathy for everything Greek p272 All Christians were obliged to pay an annual head tax, the haradj, to the state treasury, but it was their only obligation to their conquerors.. all the clergy wer exempted from taxes. Half the churches in Constantinople were converted to mosques.. For the Turks, who unlike the Arabs were not religious fanatics, Christianity was the national faith of the Greeks, as Mohammedanism was for the Turks. Like Judaism, Islam in general made no distinction between secular and religious society p273 patriarch became the milet_pasha or leader of the people, and the Church hierarchy were given the rights of civil administration over the Christian population p274 Shortly after, a period of politial decline set in for the Ottoman Empire, and arbitrariness, unscrupulousness, and corruption became the rule.. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.. Turkey could have been swept away by any of the European powers in this period, but Europe supported her for fear of Russia, and closed its eyes to the scandalous sufferings.. some places every Christian was slaughtered.. In the course of seventy-three years in the eighteenth century, the patrarch was replaced forty-eight times! Some were deposed and reinstalled as many as five times; many were put to tirture. The rebellions of the Janissaries were accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Churches were defled, relics cut to pieces, and the Holy Gifts profaned. Christian pogroms became more and more frequent p275 "You are laboring in vain; the Christian patriarch will die a Christian." This was on Easter Sunday, 1821 p278 domination of Greek bishops in conquered Bulgaria and their scornful attitude towards any native differences, even in language. This made the decay of the Orthodox worls inevitable and force the Slavs, like the Armenians and Syrians before them, to hate the Greeks. While the decay of Byzantine Christian universalism was an accomplished fact by the time of the Turkish conquest, the Turkish yoke, paradoxically enough, restored it. Since they made no distinction between religion and nationality p279 Byzantine patriarchs did everything they could to establish permanently the triumph of the Greeks over all the Slavic minorities they had previously been forced to recognize p280 painlessly and without embarassment accepted the prohibition against converting Moslems, thus rejecting the universal calling of the Church; but they expended great effort - aided by the Moslems - in humiliating, subjugating, and subduing their own brothers in the faith.. patriarchs of Constantinple systematically endeavored not only to subdue all the Slavic churches which had previously been autocephalic; but also to make them Greek, eliminating any mention of their Slavic past.. This canonical abuse of power was accompanied by forced "Grecisizing," particularly in Bulgaria, where it later served as the basis of the so-called Bulgarian question [ie phyletism]. The same sad picture prevailed in the East as well, in the patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, where Orthodox Arabs became the victims of this forced unification p282 It cannot be said that education died out completely during the Turkish period, but it declined and, most important, its spirit changed. Its purpose now was to preserve the spirit of Hellenism in its most extreme nationalistic form. According to a Russian traveler in Turkey in the nineteenth century [Quoted in Cyprian Kern, Archimandrite Antoine Capoustine in Russian, Belgrade, 1931] ".. pedantry and pomposity, resulting from a ridiculous desire to apply ancient Hellenic phrases in simple conversation.." [The only thing this shows is the persistent attempt to redefine Greek phrases to meet panSlav whim, such as "phyletism"].. Athenian Academy of Eugenius Bulgaris had a brief but brilliant history: "I have been told that the monks set fire to it intentionally," wrote Bishop Porphyry Uspensky, a Russian expert on the East, "for they thought that scholarship is not necessary for the life to come" p283 the first seminary was opened on the island of Chalchis in 1844.. Whole armieds of skillful propagandists wwere sent to the East, prepared in psecial schools, the most famous of which was the College of St Athanasius in Rome, opened by Pope Gregory XIII in 1577. A network of Roman episcopates covered the whole east. [still today, cf Ratlines] p284 Turks, however, who disliked and feared the Latins as "representative of European imperialism," protected the Orthodox p285 Patriarch Jeremiah II (1572-95), who subjected the Augsburg Confession, which had been sent to him, to a detailed analysis and exposed its obvious heresy.. lacking a frim foundaton in their own faith, were easily infected with the latest Western theological fashions, absorbed its theological and spiritual atmosphere, and then became teachers of the Orthodox clergy. A clear example of this process is the well-known case of Cyril Lascaris p288 Philokalia was completed, the peak of Eastern speculative experience, which by its profundity is now beginning to win over even the non-Orthodox p289 Serbian uprisings of 1804 and 1815, the Greek uprising of 1821, and Russia's war of liberation against Turkey in 1877 resulted in the rebirth of Orthodox states. Yet while national liberation freed the churches of these countries from Turkish control, it did not free them from its tragic consequences: national hostility and proud self-assertion, infection with theories alien to Orthodoxy, the subordination of the Church to the state or complete merging with it p290 1821, when an independent kingdom of Greece was founded, the Greek bishops themselves did not hesitate to be in schism with Constantinople for almost twenty years in order to obtain their own autocephalous Church; they hardly noticed that its constitution had been copied from Lutheran constitutions [via Petrine Russia], and that in general it did not recognize any boundary between Church and state p292 messianism has sometimes simply equated Orthodoxy with Russia, oblivious to its Byzantine origins and the "sleeping East.' The late S L Frank recently called this national self-infatuation "the chronic disease of the Russian mind" p298 Fedotov continues, "the Kievan experience, in spite of its brevity and fragility, may be regarded as one of the best Christian achievements" p300-2 Russian psychology was from the first marked by this ritualism and by a somewat hypertrophied, narrowly liturgical piety.. Slavic paganism did not offer fanatical opposition.. lacked organization, literature.. "soft" paganism, based on nature and profoundly bound to natural life.. doubly foreign, being Greek and coming from the prince as well, which meant support by the Varangian druzhina, the ruling clique.. bookish by its very nature.. divine service, the ritual - were easily accepted; it charmed.. feeling, imagination, and tenderness would be proclaimed as the basic points of distinction between Russian and Greek Christianity, the latter being considered calculating and cold p304 When Metropolitan Cyprian arrived in Moscow from Kiev on the instructions of the patriarch of Constantinople, who wished to restore ecclesiastical unity in Russia, Dimitri simply drove him out, as he drove out Pimen after him, who had managed by bribery to be consecrated in Constantinople [As did Brooklyn Greeks to St Tihon] p305 "Tatarism" - lack of principle and a repulsive combination of prostration before the strong with oppression of everything weak - unfortunately marked the growth of Moscow p307 complete transformation of man by the Holy Spirit and his aspiration to "life in God." This made St Sergius the center of Russian Orthodoxy in the dark years p308 The monastery is not the crown of the Christian world, but on the contrary, its inner judgement seat and accuser.. origins of the "Russian soul".. tragic discord between the vision of spiritual beauty and purity expressed in monasticism and the sence of hopeless sinfulness of life.. dualism pp312-313 Philotheus, the teaching elder of the Lazarus Monastery of Pskov.. letters to the Grand Princes Basil III and Ivan IV in Moscow, the Orthodox Church, like the wife in the Apocalypse, had first run from old to new Rome, "but found no peace there because of the union with the Latins at the Eighth Council. THen the Church of Constantinople fell, and the empire fled again to a third Rome, which is in New Great Russia... All Christian empires bow down to you alone: for two Romes are fallen, but the third stands fast; a fourth cannot be; your Christian kingdom shall not be given to another... YOu alone are Emperor over all Christians under the sun"... [Fedotov, "Russia and Freedom" in his Novyi Grad in Russian NY 1952 p145]: Tatar element had possesed the soul of Russia, not outwardly but from within.. spiritual Mongol conquest coincided with the political defeat.. thousands of baptized and unbaptized Tatars entered the service of the Prince of Moscow.. infecting it with Eastern concepts.. Freedom perished only after the liberation from the Tatars" p316 desire to fix everything, even to the smallest details of domestic life, in a definitive system and actually to convert the whole of life into ritual p319 Ivan [Terrible] was inspired by the West and did not like the "Greek faith" p323 Russian believed in the necessity for the priest as the performer of sacraments, but he had ceased to expect from him anything else - as for instance, instruction, leadership, or a moral example.. Spiritual life withdrew deeper and deeper into an underlying world; it became a mysterious underground river that never dried up in Russia pp324-7 fourteenth century Lithuania was in fact a Russian land and had claims as good as Moscow's to draw together the appanages.. marriage of Yagailo to Jadwiga of Poland in 1386, the Lithuanian kingdom was at first in personal union with Poland, and later, after the last upsurge of Lithuanian independence under Vitovt (1398) in political union.. falsehood and violence - that broke the spirit of the people and poisoned Christianity with hatred, all in the name of unia, or unification! The union of Brest-Litovsk of 1596, which started a period of bloody persecution of Orthodoxy in Galicia, Lithuania, and Volynia.. brotherhoods are the centers of resistance.. armed itself gradually with Western weapons.. Kievan Metropolitan, Peter Mogila (1633-47).. to counterbalance the Slavic-Greek school of the Brotherhood, he founded a completely Latin-Polish institute which soon engulfed that of the Brotherhood. Its program was taken from Jesuit.. Orthodoxy and Catholicism was transformed into a purely "jurisdictional".. Latin formulas and theories also began to penetrate Orthodox theology.. fathers of the new Russian school theology were two obvious Latinists, Simeon of Polotsk and Paissy Ligarid. Jesiuts appeared even in Moscow.. when the timeof Peter's reforms arrived, Russian theology would be already "Westernized"! p328-9 There were too many variants in the manuscripts. Which copies should be used for printing? The books of the Lithuanian press raised doubts about Orthodoxy, while the Russian ones were defective and contradictory.. decided to correct the books according to the Greek models.. Too frequently the authorities were questionable migrants from Greece seeking charity or profit in Moscow, who became teachers by chance.. thoughtless Grecophilia.. Greek liturgical books printed in Venice were frequently suspected by Russians to be Latinizing, like the Kievan editions of Peter Mogila p330 At a deeper level, it was the price paid for the radical antihistoricism of Byzantine theocracy, which had rejected Christianity as a way and a creative process, and had wanted to stop history by "eternal repetition" of a single all-embracing mystery.. In a certain sence the [Old Believer] schism did draw away from the Chirch its best forces.. schismatics were not so opposed to the Church as they were to the empire p332 Western absolutism, born out of struggle against the Church, denied that it had any right to be the conscience of the state and squeezed it within the narrow framework of "ministering to spiritual needs," which the state itself defined [still today] p333 Through the institution of the synod the Church became a governmental department.. all the principles of the Protestant territorial Church p335 Peter himself, in his ecclesiatical transformations, had relied on the Kievans and had used them to replace the native Russian bishops. Therefore the Russian divinity school (twenty-six seminaries were opened before 1750) was a Latin school in language and in the spirit of its teaching.. rupture.. still prayed in Slavic but theologized in Latin p337 also an obvious rebirth of monasticism in Russia and a new, unforgettable resurgence of holiness in the synodal period. The eighteenth century was illumined by St Tihon of Zadonsk (1724-82), and the early nineteenth century by the wonderful light of St Seraphim of Sarov, the elders of Optina Pustyn p338 Russian literature was born from the "Western injection" p339 Slavophiles too, were the fruit of German idealism, of Hegel [father of Stalinism and Hitlerism!] and Schelling #@# Vladmir Lossky, Mystical Theology, StVlad 1976 (1944) ISBN 0-913836-31-1 p25 Dionysius.. cataphatic ..[vs].. apophatic.. is of His very nature unknowable.. leads us finally to total ignorance p45 apophatic theology in order to rid ourselves of concepts proper to human thought p52 Three in Properties, or Hypostases, or Persons.. divided indivisibly.. conjoined dividedly p83 Son is called Logos not only because He is begotten without passion, but also because He remains one with the Father whom He reveals p88 western conception of grace implies the idea of causality.. for eastern theology there is a natural procession, the energies, shining forth eternally from the divine essence p110 man had only to give himself to Him in a complete abandonment of love, and thus return to Him the whole created universe.. deification of man.. not fulfilled by Adam, it is in the work of Christ, the second Adam p124 Man, according to St. Basil, is a creature who has received a commandment to become God p125 according to St Maximus, this freedom of choice is already a sign of imperfection.. perfect nature has no need of choice, for it knows naturally what is good pp140-41 immaculate conception is foreign.. [Orthodoxy].. does not wish to separate the Holy Virgin from the descendants of Adam upon whom the fault of the first parents weighs.. not holy in virtue of a privelege.. but because she has been kept from the taint of sin though without any impairment of her liberty p153 Christ assumed our nature.. responsibility for our error, while remaining a stranger to sin, in order to resolve the tragedy of human liberty, and in order to bridge the gulf p160 divine Persons do not themselves assert themselves, but one bears witness to another.. Damascene said that 'the Son is the image of the Father, and the Spirit the image of the Son' It follows that the third Hypostasis of the Trinity is the only one not having His image in another Person p176 not here concerned with individuals and with collectivity but with human persons who can only attain to perfection within the unity of nature.. cannot be translated by the abstract term of universality. For the highly concrete sense of the word 'catholicity' comprehends not only unity but also multiplicity p180 'a state of grace' has no absolute or static sense. It is a dynamic and shifting reality which varies according to the fluctuations of the infirmities of the human will p191 first presence is based on a predetermination, while the second is founded upon an election. Such are the manifestations of grace in relics, in places sanctified by appearances of the Virgin or by the prayer of saints.. finally, in the saints, in those human persons who have made the presence their own. pp 194-95 'is the boundary of created and uncreated nature' She has crossed the frontier which separates us from the age to come. This is why, freed from the limitations of time, Mary can be the cause of that which is before her; can preside over that which comes after her.. through her that men and angels receive grace.. who is herself the first-fruits of the glorified Church. Thus having attained to the limits of becoming, she necessarily watches over the destinies of the Church and of the universe, still unfolding in time p198 synergy of two wills, divine and human.. expresses the mystery of the coincidence of grace and human freedom in good works, without recourse to positive and rational terms p202 evangelical precept to watch, not to allow oneself to be weighed down with sleep, is a constant theme of Eastern asceticism pp202-03 theory which is not applied in practice, differs in no way from.. fantasy without any real substance.. action, if it is not inspired by contemplation, is as sterile and rigid as a statue p205 the more perfect one becomes, the more one is aware of one's own imperfection p214 'who desired the salvation of his brethren so fervently that he often besought God with burning tears.. that either his brethren might be save with him, or that he might be condemned with them..'.. Love of God is necessarily bound up with love of one's fellow-man p234 The love of God will be an intolerable torment for those who have not acquired it within themselves #@# Florovsky EaFath4c (v7 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsansalt FL9490 1987 ISBN 3-905238-07-1 (Orig Paris 1928-31 lect) [Florovsky taught at svots.edu, hchc.edu and harvard.edu] p17 Origenism was not only rejected but overcome, and this is the positive contribution which the Arian controversy made to theology p18 In his theology, Arius is a strict monotheist, almost a Judaizer, and for him a Trinity cannot be a single God p22 If Philostorgius is to be believed, Alexander and Ossius decided to concentrate on the word omoousios while still travelling to Nicea p24 In Platonism and Neoplatonism "essence" meant that which is general or common. For the Stoics also the term "substance" (substantia) designated a common, unqualified substratum, or matter in general, in opposition to the forms which distinguish it. For Aristotle and the Aristotelians, on the other hand, ousia meant primary individual and indivisible existence p25 for Aristotle ka8' upostasiv [kath' ypostasin] meant the reality and actuality of a thing, as opposed to its outward appearance. In the Septuagint hypostasis was used in various meanings and designated, among other things, "foundation" p27 "Eusebians," as they were called by Athanasius, who remained firm supporters of Origen and the dogma of subordinationism.. anti-Nicene fations feared Sabelianism to such an extent that they became careless with regard to Arianism p32 In the words of St Gregory the Theologian, "because of the poverty of their language and its lack of designations, the Westerners cannot distinguish between essence and hypostasis".. classical world did not know the mystery of personal being and in the classical languages there was no word which exactly designated individual personality [St Athanasius of Alexandria] p44 creation has both "nature" and "grace," Athanasius' system is built on the distinction and opposition of these two elements. He developed his teaching about the Word as sovereign and creative Wisdom before the Arian controversy p45 Man turned away from the contemplation of God, ceased his intellectual striving toward Him, and became shut up in himself, giving himself over to "self-consideration" p47 The Lord revealed His love for humanity in two ways, by destroying death and renewing nature, and by "revealing Himself in His works" to show that He is the Word of the Father, the Leader and Emperor of the universe. By his visible appearance the Lord showed His invisble Father to mankind, which had abandoned intellectual contemplation p50 accomplishments testify to the victory of Christ over death, and every day the host of martyrs laughs at death and rejoices in Christ p55 "If God had chosen not to create the world, nevertheless the Word was with God the Father" ... "Just as the Father has no cause for His being, it is also not necessary to try to find the reason for His radiance" p57 The Holy Spirit comes from and "proceeds from" the Father, to ekporeuma tou patros. He is the Father's Spirit. Athanasius does not explain the meaning of "procession," claiming that it is beyond the bounds of human understanding. However, he clearly distinguishes this mode of being from "generation" by stressing the complete uniqueness of generation [gevvnsis] [St Cyril of Jerusalem] p60 In ancient times catechumens were already considered members of the Church. Eusebius of Caesarea distinguished "three orders" within the Church, and catechumens were among them. Great circumspection was used in the admission of catechumens. Candidates needed to have the permission of the bishop and were required to undergo a period of testing, during which they were sponsored by baptized believers. Catechumens received the laying on of hands [Jewish semicha] and were signed with the cross, and prayers were read over them. In the West they were also anointed and were allowed to taste consecrated salt [for salt, cf Nums 18:19 Lev 2:13] p61 After a lengthy period of preparatory instruction, a candidate for baptism made his decision known and his name was entered in the Church records. In the East, he was then called "enlightened," or "signed with the cross," and in Jerusalem he was immediately considered a "baptized believer." In the West he was called a "petitioner" or a "chosen one".. candidate had to practice fasting and continence, and express penitence in words and deeds. For him this was a time of exomologesis, of public confession. Invocation and exorcisms were performed over him.. face was covered so that "his mind would be free, and so that his eyes in their wandering would not cause him to stray" [St Basil the Great, 1/3 Great Hierarchs] p72 Basil the Great was born into a Cappadocian family which was wealthy and distinguished.. influence of his grandmother, Macrina the elder, who was a disciple of Gregory Thaumaturgus. Basil was educated first in Caesaria and later in Constantinople and Athens, where he met Gregory the Theologian.. enormous erudition.. studied philosophy, dialectics and medicine. Basil returned to his native land in 354 and began to teach rhetoric, but he soon renounced his secular activities in favor of a life of asceticism.. joined by his friend Gregory, with whom he had earlier shared the ideal of ascetic renunciation, and together they worked on the compilation of a cenobitic rule.. compiled the Philocalia p74 during a terrible famine, Basil had sold the property he had inherited and given all of his money to help the hungry.. Gregory continues "Basil for a long time hesitated to use the proper expression, asking both the Spirit and the true supporters of the Spirit not to take offense at his circumspection".. result of this policy Basil was the only orthodox bishop in the East who managed to keep his see during the reign of Valens p76 Gospel does not separate love for God from love for one's neighbor. Therefore, for Basil, hermitic seclusion, inspired by the desire to find personal salvation in isolation, is insufficient. It is even opposed to the law of love which, according to the Gospel, "seeks nothing for itself." Furthermore, the spiritual gifts of the anchorite are of no benefit to his brothers. Finally, isolation frequently leads to arrogance. For all these reasons Basil summons ascetics to communal life and stresses the importance of love p80 Basil asserts that time was created by God as an environment for the material world.. God's creation of the world by His will did not take place in time.. angels are created outside of time and without time p84 "anger, desire, timidity and envy all confuse the soul's intuition. In the same way that a dull eye does not perceive visible objects, it is also impossible to attain a knowledge of truth with a troubled heart. Therefore, we should withdraw from worldly affairs and not introduce superfluous thoughts into our souls".. "If the soul has become weak through voluptuousness, irritability will temper it as iron is tempered by immersion in water, and will make a soft and feeble soul steadfast and firm" p86 "We observe as much as we can, but there is much that remains unperceived by us. However, we do not say that the sky is invisible simply because there is a part of it we do not see. On the contrary, it is just this limited perception we have of it that makes it visible and knowable to us. The same should be said of God" p89 By means of concepts we can break up and distinguish the information we receive through experience, but concepts can never express experience completely or exactly. Therefore they can never replace it. [cf Wittgenstein!] p92 Finally, Basil takes the basic outline of his trinitarian theology from the metaphysics of Aristotle. He was predisposed to this by the general tendency of Easter theologians to base their doctrive of the Divine Trinity [cf Buddhist-Hindu Trikaya] on the concept of triunity, or "particular," "individual," and "concrete" features p93 Aristotle is able to describe being through its properties or concrete forms, because the ultimate foundations of being are unknown. For Aristotle, this "unknowableness" is determined by the formless and unqualified substratum which is beneath all matter. For Basil, however, the inexhaustability and completeness of "esence" place it above qualification. This is connected with ambiguity of the concept dunamis [dynamis], which can mean wither undeveloped potential or power and strength [St Gregory the Theologian of Nazianzus, 1/3 Great Hierarchs] p109 "We derive something useful for our orthodoxy even from the worldly science.. Everyone who has a mind will recognize that learning is our highest good.. also worldly learning, which many Christians incorrectly abhor.. those who hold such an opinion are stupid and ignorant. They want everyone to be just like themselves, so that the general failing will hide their own imperfections, and their ignorance will not be exposed." These words were spoken by Gregory at Basil's funeral p111 at the funeral of his father he complained in Basil's presence that "in making me a priest you handed me over tot he turbulent and perfidious marketplace of souls, to suffer the misfortunes of life.. This is the outcome of Athens, our study together, our life under one roof, our companionship at one table, a single mind between the two of us, the marvels of Greece, and our mutual vow to set aside the world. Everything has shattered! Everything is cast to the ground! Let the law of friendship vanish from the world" p117 Gregory states that intellect "or any other perfect essence is comprehensible only by intellectual effort." The intellectual powers, the angels, are created in the image of God.. world of angels is the first creation to come into being p119 Gregory supports the bold formulation of Basil: man is a creature but has been commanded to become a god. The path of "deification" is a path of purification and the elevation of the intellect, ka8arsis [catharsis]. This is achieved through renouncing the material world of the sences, because the sences darken the mind. It is also necessay to concentrate on the self, to fight against the passions, and to attain a state of impassivity [meek=praos=unagitable] p120 Gregory often approaches Plato by calling the body a prison.. sees nothing surprising or misleading in the fact that Hellenic philosphers were able to develop the technique of ascetic discipline or that they were aware of the natural processes of thought and he natural laws of the soul p121 "Then in a way which is incomprehensible to us and known only to God, who joined them together and then separated them, the soul will take the flesh with its to receive its inheritence of coming glory" [compare to Hindu-Buddjist Sunya or sposed incomprehensible void of perfection] p133 He usually defines the properties of the hypostases as ungeneratedness, generation, and procession, agevvnsia, gevvnsis, ekporeusis [agenesis, genesis, ekporevsis] p134 "In whose name are you baptized? In the name of the Father? Good! However, the Jews also do this. [Jewish Mikva or ritual bath at conversion and before passover & al] In the name of the Son? Good! This is no longer according to Jewish tradition, but it is not yet complete. In the name of the Holy Spirit? Wonderful! This is perfectly complete. But are you baptized simply in their individual names, or in their common name? Yes, in their common name. And what is this name? There is no doubt that this name is God. Believe in this name and you will flourish and reign" p135 we must "penetrate the surface to know what is contained within it." Gregory explains that Scripture should not be understood only literally. "Some things which are contained in Scripture do not exist, and other things exist but are not found in Scripture. Some things do not exist and Scripture says nothing about them, but other things exist and are also described in Scripture" p143 "why was the blood of his Only-Begotten Son pleasing to the Father, who would not accept even Isaac.. not because He asks for it or demands it, but because man must be sanctified by the humanity of God, and so that He might deliver Himself" [St Gregory of Nyssa, younger brother of Basil] [Nyssa in Punjab?] p156 appearance of God begins with light, and Moses had once seen God in His radiance in the Burning Bush. Now, having become closer to perfection, he saw God in a cloud and, sheltered by a cloud, he participated in eternal life.. Our true knowledge is that we do not and cannot know because that which we seek is beyond our cognition. By its very nature the Divinity is higher than knowledge and comprehension. The first principle of theology must be that God is inaccessible. That which can be contemplated cannot be conceptually expressed.. Moses was led into the sanctuary not made by man and this is the ultimate extent of contemplation. He later reconstructed a material image of this divine temple at the command of God [Jewish bima = Holy Table or Trapeza; Judgement Seat in Greek = vima ] p158 Everything which can be truly conceived of God must be boundless, and this is why our longing is also unending p166 "We know by means of our senses only as much of their elements of the world as is useful for us. [heuristics!] We do not know what their essence is and this ignorance brings us no harm" p168 For Gregory Scripture is a symbol of spiritual truth and therefore the literal Hebraic interpretation of the bible is inadequate [nb literalist Sadducees & Antiochenes vs interpretive & allegorical Pharisses & Alexandrians].. "We say that all Scripture has been inspired by God because it is the teaching of Divine inspiration. When you remove the word, which is its corporeal cover, what remains for you is the Lord, Life and the Spirit" p170 "The Jewish doctrine is destroyed by acceptance of the Word and belief in the Spirit, and the polytheistic error of the Greeks is done away with by the truth of the unity of the Divine nature, which invalidates their idea of plurality. After these corrections are made in the false premises of both thses systems, let the Jewish conception of the unity of nature remain, and also the Greek distinction as to persons. The names of the Trinity are a remedy for those who are in error as to the One, as the doctrine of unity os for those who believe in many gods" p176 Aristotle considers that this lack of quality is an imperfection, but the Cappadocians apply this principle to the Divinity and conceive of it as ultimate completeness, a state superior to qualification p177 additional properties which distinguish men are accidental, sumbebnkotes [symvevicotes], and make no difference in the identity of their essence p179 Gergory's conception God, in spite of His presence in the world, maintains both His transcendance and His inaccessibility [Jewish Tsimtsum].. Gregory considers that the Biblical narration of creation is the record of Moses' contemplation on Mount Sinai and not the rational conjecture of some human mind. We must discern and correctly understand the true meaning of this narrative and together with Moses we must enter the mysterious cloud p185 Free will is a necessary condition of virtue because "virtue must be freely chosen and voluntary. Anything that is compulsory or forced cannot be virtue." Without free will there can be no intellect. "if intellectual natures lost their free will, they would also lose their ability to reason," that is, the ability to make distinctions and judgements p189 Gregory does not share Origen's distruct of physical matter. Everything created by God is, in the words of the Bible, "very good." Therefore, "we should discern good in every thing" [cf Maimon MT Deot 3:1]... "All of man's members have been designed for one goal: that mankind may continue to have life." Even man's animal and passionate mode of increase is not to be despised because it "ensures the succession of mankind." It is the way that "nature fights with death" p192 source of evil is the corruption of the will p202 The goal of ascetic discipline is not the mortification of the body but the mortification of the passions and sin, the subordination of the body to the law of reason, and the reconciliation of the body and soul. "Man must pacify the conflicting forces of nature within himself" p203 By charity we overcome pride and isolation. All men are created in the image of God, all men bear the image of our Savior, and all men anjoy God's love. Love for our neighbor is inseperable from love for God, and one is not possible without the other. Love is an internal connection and a growing together with the beloved object [St John Chrysostom, Antiochene, one of Three Great Hierarchs] p247 "It has been specifically forbidden for Christians to correct those who have fallen into sin by force.. not fighting to bring death to the living but to bring the dead back to life, and in our struggle we must be meek and humble.. persecute not by deeds, but by words, and I want to cast out not heretics but heresy" p248 His activity was aimed not at overcoming unorthodox opinions, but at making people who professed themselves to be Christians understand that the truths of faith are the truths and commandments of life, and that these must be put into actual practice by the individual.. Chrysostom demanded that men live according to their beliefs p249 "Wealth is harmful for you not because it arms thieves against you, nor because it completely darkens your mind but because it makes you caotives of soulless possessions and distracts you from the service of God" p251 poverty is voluntarily chosen for the sake of God and accepted with joy, it can be a path to virtue.. freer than a wealthy man and has fewer attachments and worries.. poverty could be a heavy burden.. source of envy, spite, and despair p258 Bolotov has aptly remarked that "the Alexandrian school was in danger of creating its own Scripture, but the Antiochene school, in remaining very close to the letter.." [This is the core of Chrysostom's anti-Judaiser admonitions] p261 Neither Chrysostom nor Theodore of Mopsuesta knew Hebrew.. For Chrysostom, as for Origen, the Bible is self-sufficient [St Ephraem the Syrian] p271 Syriac language [Aramaic?] of Ephraem's time did not yet posses a theological terminology.. "I openly admit the insignificance of my being and I do not want to try to know my Creator because the inaccessible One is awesome by His very nature" [apopathic] #@# Florovsky AspChHist (v4 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsanstalt FL9490 1987 ISBN 3-905238-04-7 ["Ethos" EcuRvu v12 #2] p16 only by being "Patristic" is the Church continuously "Apostolic" p25 In Orthodox theology and devotion alike, Christ is never separated from His Mother, the Theotokos and His "friends," [dragomans, said one respectful Turk] the saints. The Redeemer and the redeemed belong together inseparably. In the daring phrase of St John Chrysostom, inspired by Ephes. 1. 23, Christ will be complete only when His Body has been completed ["Athanasius" StdPatr v6 band81] p41 By using Greek categories Christian writers were forcing upon themselves, without knowing it, a world which was radically different from that in which they dwelt by faith. Thus they were often caught between the vision of their faith and the inadequacy of the language they were using. This predicament must be taken quite seriously p46 Origen strongly defended the eternity of the Divine Generation [Florovsky's term for genesis] and, at this point, was definitely anti-Arian. If we can trust St Athanasius, Origen explicitely denounced those who dared to suggest that "there was when the Son was not" [cit decretis 27] p56 "Beginning" belongs to the very "nature" of temporal things.. For that reason creatures cannot "co-exist" with the Eternal God. There are two incompatible modes of existence. Creatures have their own mode of subsistence: they are outside God ["Eschatology",StdPtr v2 1956] p59 The inner life of God is in no way conditioned by His revelatory self-disclosure in the world, including the design of Creation itself. The world is, as it were, a paradoxical "surplus" in the order of existence [Jewish Tsimtsum] p72 Origen was dealing with a real problem. His "aberrations" were in fact the birth-pangs of the Christian mind p73 The unity of mankind can only be achieved if the dead arise p76 real failure of Aristotle was not in his "naturalism," but in that he could not admit any permanence of the individuals p77 For Plato and Platonists death was just a welcome release out of the bodily bondage, " a flight to the fatherland" ["Anthropomorphites", Wolfson Jubilee, 1956] p105 basic principles of the anchorites was: qeuge tous av8rwpous kai sw5n [fevge tous anthropous kai soze] (Apophthegmata, Arsenus I, Cotelerius, Ecclesia Graecae Monumenta, I, p. 353). Retirement and renunciation was usually justified by Biblical examples: the images of Elijah and other prophets, of St John the Baptist [cf Christ in "Wilderness"] p125 Alexandrian Fathers always tended to restrict to kat' eikova [in His image] to the "interior man," to the spiritual aspect of his existence. This was, undoubtedly, an inheritance from Origen ["Missions", ChrEast v14 #1 1933] p142 many of the tongues are still undeveloped and insufficiently flexible and rich in their vocabulary to be used in mystical and sacred quotations. The missionaries often have not only to invent an alphabet but, as it were, to invent and work out the tongue itself p143 Sometimes the mission inevitably enters into controversy with the State; for it may happen tha the interest of the State demands delay in the Christianizing movement among younger nations; or sometimes, on the contrary, baptism acquires for the empire the means of forcing them into a central civilized political union p153 literary language of the Tatars was laden with Arabic and Persian words and had a general flavor of Islam, and by the use of colloquial speech it was [im?] possible to escape that hidden Moslem taint.. Ilminsky [ca 1850s] wanted. He was aiming at the formation of a specifically Christian Tatar language in opposition to an Islamic one.. language itslf was not to him something already developed and stationary, it was a living spiritual element which it was possible to transmute and transfigure [West Infl, Congr Orth Theol Athens 1936] p159 But one can hardly assume that this Dominican monk [Benjamin, mid1500s] from Croatia came to Novgorod just by accident. Apparently he had brought with him some completed Biblical texts. Indeed the influence of the Vulgate is strongly felt in the Biblical COdex of Gennadii, for the Vulgate and not Greek manuscript served as a model for the text p161 Kremlin Cathedral were built or rebuilt by Italian craftsmen.. Maxim the Greek, summoned to Moscow from the monastery of Vatopaedi on Mt Athos to aid.. "He speaks Latin and we translate it into Russian for the scribes" - the translator was Dmitrii Greasimov, a former student and assistant of Benjamin p162 Orthodox reply to Skarga's book about the [Unia] Council of Brest was actually written by a Calvinist - the well-known "Apokrisis" was published in 1587 under the name of Christopher Philaletes. There is good reason to presume that the pseudonym actually belonged to the well-known diplomat of that time, Martin Bronevskii, the secretary to King Stephen Batorii, who was deeply involved in the confederation of the Orthodox and the Evangelicals p163 Thus there was some truth to the malicious, ironic words of the Uniate Metropolitan Hypatius Pociei, when he wrote to Patriarch Meletius Pigas that Calvin has replaced Athanasius in Alexandria, Luther rules in Constantinople, and Zwingli in Jerusalem. It is sufficient to recall the "Confession" of Cyril Lukaris, the authenticity of which can no longer be doubted. This unexpected presentation of Calvinism by the Orthodox Patriarch can be partly explained as a result of his studies in Geneva p164 Although Mogila had certainly fought for the legal independence of the Kievan Church and had supported the resistance of the Orhtodox Church against the "Unia" [duplicitous papal reunification during 1230-1667 Polish occupation of Ukraine], there was however on many points no doctrinal difference between him and Rome p165 Stefan Iavorskii, who later, under the reign of Peter the Great [who took back Ukraine], went north. His Rock of the Faith" ("Kamen' Very") was actually only a "summary", a shortened "compilation" of various lLatin works, mainly of Bellarmine's Disputationes_de controversis christianae_fidei p169 In his well-known book Stefan_Iavorskii and Theophan_Prokopovich, Iurii Samarin wanted to present the clash of Romish and Reformation trends as a moment of alleged inner "dialectic of Russian theological thought" p181 only through a spiritual return to patristic sources.. return to the Fathers does not mean to retreat from the present or from history.. independence from the West must not degenerate into an alienation.. must encounter the West creatively ans spiritually. The dependence and imitation of the past cannot be considered an encounter.. Orthodox Theology's path of overcoming the Western "scandal" does not lie in rejecting or even overthrowing Western results. The path, rather, lies in overcoming and surmounting them in a new creative activity [Ways of Ru Theol, Dieu Vivant, 13, 1949] [It was the Petri-Papo-Burgundian influence which emulated the French Jacobins via bolshevism which Rancour-laFerriere sees as "masochistic"] p188 Faith has been preserved in the lower classes most of the time in a superstitious and "popular" context. Orthodoxy was reduced to being the confession of "simple folks,".. Slavophiles carried their share of responsibility. According to them [borrowing from German ROmaticism], the life of the people itself was a kind of natural catholicity. The commune, the "mir," was an embryo of the churh p189 "In its time, the Church was founded upon the better people of the land, not upon the obscure masses of the countryside, which retains to this day so many uncertain beliefs, pagan survivals, and among which the scism had soon grown deep roots" (S. Trubetskoy) p190 one hand, a craving for knowledge, an intellectual restlessness, an Aristotelian spriti of inquiry. On the other hand a dru and cold passion for simplification. Two wills oppose each other; more exactly the will is split assunder in twain [bipolar?] p195 It must pass through the austere schooling of Chrsitian Hellenism. Hellenism, so to speak, assumed a perpetual character in the Church; it has incorporated itself in the very fabric of the Church as the eternal category of Christian existence. Of course what is meant here is not the ethnical Hellenism of modern Hellas [Helladism] or of the Levant, nor Greek phyletism [phylum=race, phyletism=racism] , which is obsolete and without justification. We are dealing with Christian antiquity, with the Hellenism of dogma, of the liturgy, of the icon. In the liturgy, the Hellenic style of the "piety of the mysteries" enter into the rhythm of the liturgical mystagogy without passing through some sort of mystical "re-hellenization." Could anyone who is in the Church be foolish enough to deliberately "de-hellenize" the service and transpose them into a more "modern" style?. Moreover, Hellenism is more than a passing stage - in the Church. Whenever a theologian begins to think that the "Greek categories" are outmoded, this simply means that he has stepped outside of the rhythm of communion. Theology cannot possibly be catholic except within Hellenism. Now, Hellenism is ambiguous. An anti-Christian element was predominant in the ancient mind, Till now, there are many who take refuge themselves in [profane] Hellenism for the express purpose to rise and fight against Christianity (simply think of Nietzche!) But Hellenism was integrated into the Church; such is the historic meaning of Patristic theology p197 All those tentative transpositions or translations have never been anythin else but betrayals, that is to say, new interpretations in terms thoroughly inappropriate. Their terms always suffered from an incurable particularism. THay satisfied less their needs of contemporaries than the fads of the day. Turning away from Christian Hellenism is by no means moving ahead, but backwards, toward the dead ends and the perplexiies of the other [profane, even pre-Socratic & sophist] Hellenism, the one that had not been transfigured, and from which there was no escape but through Patristic integration. German idealism itself was nothing else but a backsliding into pre-Christian idealism p198 Whatever was Greek was suspected of intellectualism and consequently pronounced superfluous and alien to the exigencies of the Russian heart.. Tareiev declaimed with pathos against Greek oppression, against the Byzantine yoke: "Greek gnosticism had fettered religious thought, checked our theological creativity; it hindered the growth of our philosophy of the heart, it caused its root to dry up, it burned its shoots" p199 We cannot help wondering how a man can so naively withdraw himself from history and from the Christian heritage, with the candor and indifference of those who have forgotten their origins. Russian theology did not suffer from Greek oppression. It suffered, on the contrary, for its imprudence and lightheartedness in breaking up the continuity of the Hellenic and Byzantine traditions.. Renouncing Greek patrimony is actually tantamount to ecclesiatical suicide p202 Orthodox theology is called upon to demonstrate that the ecumenical problem cannot possibly be solved unless the Church reaches its fulfilment in the fullness of the catholic tradition, intact and immaculate, yet renewed and always growing #@# St Isaac Nineveh, Ascetic Life, St Vlad, ISBN 88141-077-2: p30 (1.25) virtue requires a heart emptied of earth and its affairs p31 (1.30) insatiable longing of the soul for the acquisition of virtue surpasses the desire of its partner, the body, for visible things p33 (2.6) [when depressed] bring to your mind the former times of diligence.. blaze of zeal p44 (3.5) G*d has not made his image subject to passion [praos=meek=passionless].. nature of the soul is sometimes a limpid receptacle of the blesed light, it will be found in this state when it comes again to its original created condition p58 (3.58) Before being tempted one prays to God as a stranger. But when one has entered tribulations.. considered God's housemate and friend.. contended for the sake of [God's] will against the army of his enemies p76 (4.77) Do not distinguish between rich and poor, and do not determine who is worthy and who is not.. p82 (5.13) One who doubts the Lord is persecuted by his own shadow.. (5.17) one whose offenses are small in his eyes will fall into even greater ones p91 (5.69) how would you have become aware of these things if you had not had adversities? p104 (6.8) limpidity of mercy is known from patience in bearing injury, and the perfection of humility when it rejoices in gratuitous slander St Gregory of Nyssa Soul&Ressurection SVS:NY:1993 ISBN:0-88141-120-5 p45 The likeliness of the intelectual is intelectual. The likeliness of the bodiless is bodiless, free from all weight and escaping all dimensional measurement like its archetype, but different from it according to the particular property of its nature. For it would not be an image if it were the same as its original in all respects. p56 From the animals.. is anger, from them is fear, from them all the other qualities which conflict in us expcept for the reasoning.. distinctive of our nature.. itself the imitation of divine character p67 holding on to its own cognitive power.. separate elements are combined again into the same body to reinstitute what dissolved.. properly be called 'resurrection' p85 The Gospel says that the restitution for the debt is not made by payment of money, but that the debtor is handed over 'to the torturers unitl,' it says, 'he repays all that he owes' [Mth 18:34].. when he has thus put away all that is alien.. taken off the shameful garment of his debts, he enters into freedom and confidence p100 So the remaining alternative is to suppose that soul and body have one and the same begining. Just as the earth receives from the farmer a slip cut off from its root, it produces a tree.. same way we say that what is separated from a human being for the propogation of a human being is itself also in someway a soul-endowed being from a soul-endowed being p118 In the same manner the human nature also, when it abandons to death all the properties which it acquires through the state of subjection to passion (I mean dishonor, corruption, weakness, difference of age), does not abandon itself. Instead, as if ripening into an ear, it changes into incorruptiblility, glory, honor, power, and every kind of perfection #@# Columbia Hist World Harper 1972 ISBN 0-88029-004-8 [foreword by Univ Prez Wm McGill] [incl Barzun, Shenton, Fritz Stern, Henry Graff, Richard Hofstadter] p61 Akkadian, a Semitic dialect, was understood from Babylon to EGypt p69 brown water of the fflood leaves behind a deposit of silt rich in organic matters which renew the topsil.. backbreaking work of the fellah which sustained the agricultural civilization of Egypt through six millenia.. As soon as man's effort slackened, the population dwindled. It totalled 8 mllion under the Romans in the first century; it was only 2 million at the beginning of the nineteenth century under Turkish rule p75 only in Egypt, the living, the dead, and the gods were three species of the same substance.. same egalitarian idea later marked the Jewish, Christian and Muslim hopes of future life.. Greeks, death ended life, and immortality was a miraculous gift of the heavens to an exceptional man p98 Vedic man took a positive view of the world around him; he was confident of his ability to grapple with his environment. His religious "anxiety" was outer-directed: there is very little evidence of the inward ascetic withdrawal and transcendental mysticism of later Indian civilization p115 [China] Commerce was not yet looked down upon, and nobles themselves engaged in it without disgrace p127 power was shared by the emperor and the bureaucracy. Major policy decisions were discussed at the court, and the advice of high oficials, in unanimous, was considered binding p141 Jacob's children had to be driven by famine into Egypt so that the Israelites, arriving from Egypt "470 years" later, could be represented as his descendants. (Similarly, the children of Hercules had to be banished from the Peloponnese so that they dould lead the later Dorian invasion.) p150 colonies [and mountains?] were a frontier from which the Greeks derived an awareness of new possibilities, a willingness to experiment, and a "philosophic" detachment from established customs and ideas p151 revulsion of the temperate desert people from the drunken Palestinian fertility rites p172-3 austerity transformed art.. simplicity, already characteristic of Greel elegance, Athenian art added a delocacy of feeling, a lighter touch, and an interest in sentiment... bourgeois mentality, in the restraint of this naturalism by reverence and by the common-sence notion that art "should" represent beautiful things p178 "Hellenized barbarian" states is the culture of the ruling class was mostly Greek, but the population was mostly non-Greek - or Greek of a savage sort that the Greeks would scarcely recognize it. Besides Macedon and Epirus in northern Greece, the old Milesian colony of Panticapaeum in south Russia p180 Aristotle, the completely professional philosopher.. systematic.. organizing the many branches of knowledge for cooperation, as in a university or an academy p247 By the end of the sixth century the Gospels had been translated into Coptic, Nubian, Ethiopic, Syriac, Sogdian, Armenian, Georgian, Gothic, Thracian and Latin. In all of these languages except Sogdian, Latin and perhaps Thracian, the translation was the first written literature p249 Introspection, hitherto the luxury of a few philosophers, became now a major concern of millions of baptized Christiansq p264 Egypt and Syria the Christian population was strongly opposed to the centralizing and Hellenizing tendencies of the Byzantine.. not only all Christians and Jews in the empire, but also the Zoroastrians of Persia.. self-administered communities, lived under their own civil codes, and were goverened by their own religious leaders.. mass conversions to Islam would have meant abandoning the jizya, a considerable source of revenue.. wisely left civl control in the hands of their non-Muslim subjects - the Hellenized Christians and Persians experienced in local government [cit Andrae, Arberry, Gibb, Hitti, Bernard Lewis, Watt] p321 subdued the Tatars, Kereits, Oirats and Naimans, and became the master of the Mongolian-speaking people. His supremacy was confirmed in 1206, when the Mongolian diet recognized him as Chinggis Khan, which may mean Universal Ruler p387 military elite and soldierly were policed by the idea of just war.. monastic militia was quite as active. The clearing of forest and march by the Cistercians and other orders is well known. The military orders provided Europe's best soldiers and, until the rise of Lombardy's merchant-bankers in the thriteenth century, the Templars specialized in papal and state finance p402 Anti-Jewish outbreaks often accompanied the attempts around 1100 of urban merchantile and ministerial groups to break the power of their princes.. England's precocity in inventing anti-Jewish propaganda paralleled the rapid growth of the Crown, its initial incapacity to tax the aristocracy, and the consequent squeezing of its Jews.. England's Jews were expelled in 1295. Everywhere in the later Middle Ages, the Jews were reduced to marginal economic functions, pushed back towards Islam's frontiers p404 guild corporatism maximized profits and multiplied monopolistic restrictions.. Already dimly outlined in Italy before 1300, the whole panoply of state-regulated banking and monetary policy, bullion-measured trade balances, and state-chartered companies slowly spread to the rest of Europe.. Jews and Lombards resident in foreign lands who were privileged to lend money at usury p408 Templars were abolished in 1312, the first monastic order to succumb to lay attack p453 Pope Innocent III wrote with profound indignation: "How can the Church of the Greeks be expected to return to devotion of the Apostolic See when it has seen the Latins setting an example of evil and doing the devil's work so that already, and with good reason, the Greeks hate them worse than dogs" Ominously the Greek historian in exile, Nicetas Choniates, recorded the native point of view: "The accursed Latins... lust after our possessions and would like to destroy our race... between them and us there is a wide gulf of hatred... Even the Saracens are merciful and kind [in comparison with these creatures] who bear the cross of Christ on their shoulders" p455 The policy of the Lascarid emperors to return to earlier Macedonian traditions of social legislation, a guided economy, and centralization around a learned court produced at best a pale shadow of former slplendor p456-7 In 1342 the wealthy city of Thessalonike was seized by a popular party, which proclaimed a program of social wlefare and religious puritanism, massacred the upper classes, and established a commune which maintained itself until 1350, thus isolating the city from the rest of the empire... usurpation of John VI Cantacuzenus against the legitimate heir John V Paleologus found regional support which weakened still further the cohesion of the empire.. At various points of his career, John Cantacuzenus owed his survival to the support of the Serbian czar or the Ottoman sultan p459 first time mental stagnation and anti-intellectualism manifested themselves at Constantinople.. Aristotelian logic failed to win over most Greek scholars from their traditional attachment to Platonic idealism.. Hesychast doctrine with its total concentration on the mystical vision.. rejection of the nascent humanism of the West.. intellectuals departed, while religious leaders, rejecting the "heretical" emperor.. otherworldly monastic p460 [Moscow] "Because the Old Rome has collapsed on account of heresy... and because the Second Rome which is Constantinople is now the possession of the godless Turks, thy kingdom O pious Tsar, is the Third Rome. It surpasses in devotion every other, and all Christian kingdoms are now merged in thy realm. Thou art the only Christian sovereign in the world, the Master of all faithful Christians... All Christian empires are fallen in their stead stands alone the Empire of our ruler in accordance with the prophetical books. Two Romes have fallen, but the Third stands, and a Fourth there will not be" [cit Diehl, Hussey, Ostrogorsky, Runciman, Vasiliev, Vryonis] p465 it was not the outsiders who left their imprint on the new states, but the Slavic substratum... Bulgars of the ninth century still addressed their chieftains as "khan" and wore the trousers and turbans of Asiatic nomands, but soon thereafter the Christian Bulgar ruler forgot his Turkish ways and language to become a Slavic "czar".. Direct Slavic control of Greece had been broken by the crushing defeat inflicted on them at Patras in 805 by the emperor Nicephorus I p471 989 that Sviatoslav's bastard Son, Vladimir I the saint.. Kiev.. senior in an agglomeration of military and commercial city-states, most of the ruled by members of a single dynastiy claiming descent from Riurik. Of variable importance at different times, these included Chernigov and Pereiaslav near Kiev; Novgorod and Smolensk in the north; Polotsk and Halicz (Galicia) in the west; Tmutorakan far to the south; and Rostov the great, Riazan, Suzdal, and Vladimir in the East. Hence a centrifugal tendency was an intrinsic part of the early Russian political structure p488-9 The foundation of successful banking houses in Castile, France, Germany, and the Netherlands in the fifteenth century broke its monopoly of international banking. ITalian merchant-bankers adapted resiliently to changing economic circumstances.. Bankers rationalized the organization of their firms, generalized novel accounting techniques like double-entry [out here, in there] bookkeeping, and developed more sophisticated instruments of credit and exchange. The Medici Bank was smaller than the great Florentine banks of the early fourteenth century; but in the days of its greatness it was better managed and more efficient.. sixteenth century was an age of economic expansion all over Europe.. prototype of modern European civilization.. conscious manipulation and balancing of one power against another, so characteristic of the relations among European powers in the modern world.. earliest clear expression of bourgeois values.. time is money; and the notion, so difficult for the aristocrat to graps, that expenditures should not exceed one's income p520 Papal doctrine held tha such transfers of divine credit could benefit not only the living but the dead as well p546 Charles V, who ruled Spain from 1516 to 1556, was also the Holy Roman Emperor, sovereign duke over provinces in the Low Countries, Burgundy, Austria, Styria, and almost innumerable other, lesser territories in addition to being king of Bohemia and Hungary, and Duke of Milan, Naples and Sicily. As part of this great Hapsburg Empire p557 William of Orange.. cleverly staged a number of democratic coups in Brussuels, Ghent.. savior of oligarchy in Holland had become the hero of guild democracy in the south p604 conquest of Anatolia in the eleventh century had been largely the work of a warrior group known as gazis whose common tie was their devotion to jihad.. first of mixed origin, then increasingly Turkicized.. frontier society which spearheaded the Muslim advance.. militant Islamic faith differed from the learned and strictly orthodox beliefs of the Seljuk.. paradoxically both share the superstitions of the local non-Muslim population and rally the allegiance of other Muslim groups as the true sword-bearers of Islam against the Infidel p618 England, France, and Russia, who had jointly destroyed the Ottoman fleet at Navarino in 1826. Russia advanced in both Thrace and Transcaucasia. Fear of Russia's expansion in Central Asia, which threatened British interests in Iran and India, and of her control of the Dardanelles, briefly extorted in 1833 through the secret clauses of the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi, alarmed Western powers and led to the Crimean Was of 1853-1856, which gave a breathing spell, but no more, to the Ottoman government. In the famous phrase of Czar Nicholas I, "the Sick Man of Europe" p711 Locke, Voltaire, and their fellow Deists were sure that all religions rest on a common, identical moral sence, and that the differences among creeds are merely superstitious and irrelevant accretions - the inventions of crafty priests to secure themselves power and riches by deceiving people and keeping them ignorant [cf Schmemann HREO p98] p712 Jesuits were expelled from Portugal and its colonies in 1759. (Did the catastrophic Lisbon earthquake of 1755 discredit Providence? Many said so throughout Europe. Voltaire wrote a poem about it.) In France and Spain the Jesuits were suppressed in 1767. Aranda in Spain also persuaded Charles III to abolish the Inquisition. Frederick the Great in Prussia and Joseph II in Austria decreed religious toleration; in England and elsewhere trials for witchcraft decline or disappeared; and finally on 1773, the enlightened pope whome even Voltaire loved and praised, Benedict XIV, abolished the Jesuit order altogether p761 Both sides were war-weary by 1780, and looked hopefully to foreign mediation. Austria and Russia proposed to force a truce upon all parties and impose a settlement based on the military status quo. Had their diplomacy succeeded, Maine, New York City, and most of the Carolinas and Georgia would have remained part of the British Empire and a united nation might never have been achieved. However, the news of Yorktown put an end to these complicated backstairs intrigues and hardened the move in England for a quick peace p773 As Bonaparte bluntly put it, "On my return to Paris I found division among all authorities, and agreement upon only one point, namely, that the Constitution was half destroyed and was unable to save liberty" p782 Napoleonic Code.. main legal victories of the Revolution - equality of men before the law, the rights of citizens, the abolition of manorial privileges - were retained and embodied in a form that has been France's most important cultural export p818 In 1918 the empire was shorn of many of its Asian provinces and occupied by Greek, British, French, and other troops. The ensuring war of liberation revivified Turkish nationalism. It was led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, a general who had won fame and popularity by his brilliant dfense of Gallipoli in 1915 and his dogged resistance to the British advance in Syria in 1918. The ramshackle, multinational, archaic Turkish empire emerged as a compact, homogeneous republic p843 canals and railroads of the Mississippi Valley and the Great West were constructed by Irish and Chinese, the timber of the north exploited by Scandinavians, the subways of New York dug by Italians, the steel mills and meat-packing plants of the Middle West manned by immigrants from eastern Europe, the clothing industry of New York by Jews.. real wages in the United States rode every decade in the nineteenth century p845 American political philosophy as faith in anarchy plus a schoolmaster p853 Starting arounf 1830, hundred of southern Europeans (French, Spanish, Italian and Greek) settled in North Africa, from Egypt to Morocco. At their peak, in the 1930's, they numbered more than 2 million p960 As Darwin expelled man from his privileged place in nature, Freud expelled reason from its privileged place in human nature p975 In the Balkans Austria-Hungary could find an outlet for her commerce and capital.. Straits at Constantinople, commanding entry to the Black Sea, remained in control of a power that, if not friendly, was at least weak. But when she was seized with Pan-Slavic enthusaism, Russia could go further and assume her old role as patron of her fellow Slavs and of the Orthodox Church.. Rebellions in the Turkish provinces in 1875 provoked terrible massacres in Bulgaria. A European conference called in 1876.. by 1878, Russia demanded the creation of a "Big Bulgaria" p976 Pan-Slav implications of the Treaty of San Stefano; this provided an opportunity for Disraeli to reassert his pro-Turkish policy, now that Gladstone's anti-Turkish campaign had been momentarily neutralized by the Turk's heroic stand at Plevna. The main result of the ensuing Congress of Berlin was the partition of Big Bulgaria; one part, called Macedonia, was returned to Turkish misrule and more atrocitites in the nineties; the remainder was broken into Bulgaria proper and Eastern Rumelia, though the two were reunited without serious protest seven years later. The British initiaive, taken so dramatically at Berlin, was not maintained. In 1879, Gladstone's novel "Midlothian Campaign" - once more roused British voters against Disraeli's forward policy; but Gladstone's own governemnt after 1880 was so divided that no clear line could come from the Liberals, and thus the way was opened for Salisbury's greater realism after 1886 p977 Ad now, that Britain was firmly entrenched in Egypt, her superintendence of the Eastern Mediterranean could be conducted from there (and from Cyprus, which she occupied in 1877). The old need to prop up Turkey fell away, leaving Turkey open to German penetration p978 In 1912, when Turkey was further embroiled in a war with Italy over Italian designs on Lybia, the Balkan states of Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro united against Turkey, in the end limiting her to a tiny European foothold about COnstantinople. But the victorious allies fell out, and in 1913, follwoing a Bulgarian attack, Serbia and Greece were joined by Rumania to defeat Bulgaria and to make territorial gains for themselves p979 Bismark had often said that the Balkans were not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian grenadier; now his successors, mesmerized for years by the prospects of a Berlin-to-Baghdad railway.. Turkey, which was rapidly becoming a German protectorate..For their part, the Austrians continued their harassment of the Serbs. Not content with their Bosnian coup of 1908, in 1913, they conjured up an independent Albania to block Serbia's outlet to the Adriatic. The pretext they wanted for still further action arose on June 28, 1914, when the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated at Sarajevo by a member of a secret society of Serbian nationalists p992 Bolshevism, long nurtured in prewar thoughts and antagonisms, could never have triumphed without the war.. 1o million Europeans had died in battle p999 Although the Bolsehviks quickly won control of the most important cities, it took them three years of bitter civil war to subdue the broad reaches of Russia.. battles without prisoners, organized terror and unorganized marauding.. Entire towns were depopulated. Inevitably, widespread famine followed p1006 United States in 1919 turned in on itself. In the frenzy of Red Scare it sought ot exorcise all European ideals p1014 William Faulkner later wrote: "Our economy is not agricultural any longer. Our economy is the federal government. We no longer farm in Mississpi cotton fields. We farm now in Washington corridors and Congressional committee rooms" p1040 The British complained that each time the governement made a concession Gandhi would shift his ground, but Gandhi's actions were intelligible from his strategy of noncooperation and his metaphysics, which hed that any truth could not be embodied in any formula but needed continual restatement in action p1048 geographical inventions - Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia - were themselves multinational states, ridden with tension and under constant threat of disintegration, like the mepire from which they had sprung. A boudary line or a majority vote cannot disentangle mixed populations p1051 But German democracy, handicapped by the apolitical attitude that had almost always characterized German intellectuals and by a steady barrage of destructiv criticism from its enemies, was compromised for many more of its citizens by its origin in defeat, while in other countries, notably Poland ans Hungary, the immediate postwar instability led ultimately to the establishment of regimes that might be in form democratic but that were in essence highly authoritarian p1066 Taking a leaf from an earlier performance - the sneak attack on Russian Port Arthur in February, 1904 - on December 7, 1941, Japanese aircraft struck the naval base of Pearl Harbor p1069 ironic truth was that authentic Communist sentiments were much stronger in France and Italy than in eastern Europe p1081 The Europe of the Six is but a part of Europe, roughly coterminous with Charlemagne's empire p1156 Literacy cannot be spread indefinitely but turns back on itself; teachers cannot be mass-produced at will like cars; and worst of all, the beneficiaries of free schooling resist or scorn the benefit. Accordingly, the latest "solution" offered the once-hopeful world is: "de-schooling society." It sounds like a new-found freedom p1162 Rather, faith is on the list of shortages, like all other natural resources. But much more than they, faith is needed for action, innovation, risk-taking, heroism p1163 Artists, free thinkers, and free lovers who currently denounce the Western nations as police states would from their future labor camps long for the good old days p1164 But if taht is so, then science is not what iits founders expected, a source of knowledge; rather, it is an absorbing activity, whose results can never give its patron civilization any conception of the world, much less of that other fugitive, man #@# Columbia Hist Wst Philos 1999 ISBN1-56731-347-7 p33 Like Socrates' activites, Plato's dialogues provoke thought in others but deliberately leave their own conclusions ambiguous p35 Plato seems to think that practical problems can be truly, reliably solved only on a theoretical basis p47 Rhetoric and sophistry are attacked in many dialogues, but in the Phaedrus Socrates describes a "method of collection and division" that is often identified with Platonic dialectic and what is sometimes thought to be Plato's ideal rhetoric p48 just state, constructed as a means to discovering the just soul, consists of distinct classes, each of which sticks to its natural work: artisans and farmersalone rise crops and make goods, soldiers alone fight and protect, and guardians or philosopher-kings alone govern, while manifesting among themselves extreme equality of the sexes, communism and asceticism. There is here a serious belief that justice consists in a right ordering of parts in both souls and states, despite the "royal lie" to be told to children about their origins in the earth, the paradoxical definition of justice as "minding your own business," the moralistic censorship of poetry and music, and the governmental eugenic-breeding program p70 serve the interests of all its subjects, rather than its own.. Aristotle gathered material on the constitutional history of soe 158 states [like Madison!].. instead that it can only truly come to be through modest [Burkean?!] revision of existing ones p79 Pyrrho, who went to India on Alexander's expedition, was influenced in his scepticism by Magi and Gymnosophists (probably Brahmans) p80 Epicurius advanced the same ethical goal as Pyrrho - "freedom from disturbance" [meekness!] p95 Philo set out to build Moses into an early philosophic visionary rivaling [dualist] Pythagoras. His project was thus akin to others (such as Plutarch's essay On Isis and Osiris or its sources) that traced the origins of Greek religious wisdom beyond Pythagoras to Zoroaster or to early Egypt; unsurprisingly it made extensive use of allegorical interpretation in the Stoic manner p101 Gnostic systems are noted for the distance by which they separate the creator from the original principle of the spiritual world.. key figure in the latter stages of the spiritual world is sophia (wisdom), mother to the creator who may herself be at fault, and whose power is then scattered throughout humankind, to be restored eventually by salvation p115 Josephus' Stoic-like Pharisees condemn luxury; his Pythagorean-like Essenes share all things in common and are perfect masteres of their own souls p125 most accute Christian philosopher of the period, Gregory of Nyssa revised Origen's theology in the light of both this developing orthodoxy and of the post-Plotinian Platonism.. human soul is not a fallen intelligible being but is, of its nature, meant for material habitation in abody. The fall did not create human circumstances, it only latered and marred them.. soul's rehabilitation is not within the scope of its volition, but rests upon the initiative of the Creator as Redeemer p147 rabbi Akiba, who stated, "Everything is forseen; but freedom is given" (Mishna, Avot. 3:5) p187 Averroes insisted on the philosopher's right to interpret the Qur'an allegorically p193 Maimonides is not being disingenuous here. He is firmly committed to evaluating all arguments on their philosophical merits alone, and then corroborating the truth by reference to scripture p337-8 Descartes spent much of his adult life among Protestant thinkers, but he always claimed to be a Catholic. Descartes apparently hoped that his philosophy and science would provide the foundations for a new theology, just as Aquinas had sought to bring medieval theology into harmony with the Aristotelian science of his day.. remained on the "enemies list" for many Catholic philosophers right down to the present. In 1994, Pope John Paul II claimed that it was Descartes who, albeit perhaps unintentionally, set the stage for the destruction of the medieval Christian worldview p341 The debate between rationalists (who hold that knowledge is in whole or part dependent on mental structures) and the empiricists (who hold, following Aristotle, that "there is nothing in the intellect that is not first in the sences") has been with us since Plato's time. Since the seventeenth century, it has taken on a more explicitly ideological flavor. Descartes sees the human as a composite of two substances: mind and body. Descartes' argument that our minds have access to knowledge independent of environmental input presents a theory of human nature that is very inconvenient to church or state authorities who seek to control individual minds p349 Hobbes argues that the best kind of sovereign power is monarchial.. only satisfactory remedy was a state religion with the monarch as its head.. requires agreement by compact before there is in existence a power that can enforce.. no theoretical limit to the power of the sovereign p352-4 carefully designed experiments, science could not be conceived as a body of definitive knowledge about relaity. COnsequently it could not remain attached to any one philosophical tradition or school and must be entirely open to continuous revision.. Jesuits believe the best ways to keep Christians within the church were to liberalize Christian morals and develop a more optimistic and humanistic Christian anthropology. In their casuistic treatises, best known through Pascal's devastating criticism of them in the Provincial_Letters, the Jesuits softened the demands on the believer.. Pascal and his Jansenist friends saw humanist and worldly compromises as fundamentally detrimental.. contributed decisively to the public disparagement of the Jesuits.. According to Pascal, Luther and Calvin considered human nature so corrupt after original sin that although virtuous actions were possible, the merit belonged to God's grace, not human nature.. commands are neithe always possible (against the Pelagian/Molinist heresy) nor always impossible (against the Manichean/ Calvinist heresy).. Molinists take the prelapsarian state - and the Calvinists the postlapsarian - to be the whole of human nature.. Jansenist Augustinianism - reconciles the two positions by holding to the simultaneous reality of both states.. For Pascal and the Jansenists, both deviations from orthodoxy ultimately result from the contamination of theology by the rationalism and humanism of the pagan philosophies p363 ancient esoteric wisdom that God had imparted to Moses on Mount Sinai, but being Jewish and not pagan in origin, the Kabbala was considered by many to be the preeminent source for this prisca_theologia p381 Basnage was told by the rabbi that there was nothing original in Spinoza's work, that it was just the vew of the Jewish kabbalists, diguised in Cartesian terms.. pantheistic [masonic?] elements of kabbalism into a thoroughgoing naturalistic picture of the world, a metaphysics for a world without any supernatural deity p388 Locke sahres with Hobbes a commitment to a social contract.. We are all free and equal under that law, which itself has a divine source.. if you violate my rights, I in turn have the right to punish you.. very important right to property.. power is given to government to protect the natural rights.. fails to protect the individual's rights, then political society ceases to exist.. forfeits its right ot rule and rebellion is justified p415 William Temple (1628-1699), the English scholar-statesman, marvelled at the rtional and complex social and political organizations in China. In his essay "Of Heroic Virtue" (1690), he claimed that the CHinese government in practice exceeded the speculations in utopian p443 Hobbes and Spinoza were reviled as atheists because they had struck at the heart of the cultural authority of the church. It was precisely this challenge that the deists took forward into the eighteenth century, and the arch proponent of the Spinozist critique of the Bible was John Toland.. undercut the sanctity of both church and state p458 Hume never confronted religious thought head-on.. Instead he kept showing that there can never be adequate evidence to support any view on the subject p464 There are variations in religion, laws, traditions, and customs. But the most basic feature is climate, which determines how people can live, feed themselves, and otherwise survive. Montesquieu believed that governments are artificial p465 Voltaire's lifelong attack on the ancien regime, praising England in contrast to the oppressive situation in France p470 Rousseau in many works advocates the importance of the primitive, the original human nature before it was corrupted by civilization.. Voltaire, Diderot, and d'Holbach portrayed the European rleigious tradition as developing out of a barbarian, oriental, superstitious world and as maintained by the police forces of priests and tyrants p480 philosophy of common sence was influential among latte eighteenth- and nineteenth-cnetury philosophers in Scotland, France and the United States. Because of the strong religious connections between Scottish and American Presbyterians, Reid's philosophy took root early at the College of New Jersey, which later became Princeton.. explores the roles and uses of what he thus calls the ideal system through Descartes, Malebranche, Antoine Arnauld, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. As Reid sees it, the ideal system is a recipe for intellectual disaster. What started out as Descartes' attempt to eliminate scepticism has paradoxically resulted in Hume's scepticism p497 Kant introduces some of his most basic doctrines, and he provides a paradigm of the typical three-step argument structure of his work: a "metaphysical" isolation of a pure or a priori representation; a "transcendental" demonstration that this representation is needed for a given type of knowledge claim; and an introduction of a metaphysical "explanation" (transcendental idealism"), which alone make sence of the first two steps p499 In the transcendental dialectic, Kant shifts from defending a priori metaphysical claims to attacking the alleged justification of theoretical claims about the sould, the world, and God. The attack on rational psychology proceeds by first isolating a pure representation of the self - nmely, the representation of the subject that must be a component of any experience - and then arguing that this representation is not sufficient to show that the self is known as a substantial, simple, persistent, independent object. Fallacies that confuse the pure or transcendental representation of this subject with a particular objective claim are exposed as "paralogisms," false syllogisms that go astray because of a confusion of transcendental and empirical meanings p501 Thus in Kant's terms, one's "empirical character" can fit a completely lawful natural pattern, and yet one's having that pattern can be due ultimately to a nonspatiotemporal and free commitment at the level of one's "intelligible" character. Kan grants and even stresses that exactly how such a nonempirical causality works remains very obscure, but his main point is that this metaphysics and it alone at least leaves room for human freedom. It alone fits the commonsensical idea that a rationalperson cannot help but acknowledge what in the second Critique Kant calls the "fact of reason" - the legitimacy of the command of moral law (even if one fails to have the goodness to heed that command) and the idea that this law presumes the ultimate freedom of its adressee p508 Anti-Semitism existed already in the Roman Empire, which imposed special taxes on Jews because of their unwillingness to work or fight on the Sabbath or to recognize the gods of Rome p509 Africans were assumed to be descendants of Ham and his son Canaan, whose skin was reported to have been darkened because they disgraced Noah p521 Kant had argued that the beliefs in the existence of God, providence, and immortality are justified not by theoretical but practical reason.. necessary incentives for our duty to act according to moral law, which is based upon reason alone.. Kant's practical faith proved to be a mere stopgap for the crisis p522 young Romantics ascribed enormous importance to art, which they saw as the key to social, political, and cultural reform.. utopia was "the poetic state," where the prince is an artist, the director of a vast public stage in which every citizen is an actor.. criticism that had destroyed the olf bonds of nature and society. Nature had lost its magic, mystery, and beauty, now that reason had shown its spirits where myths; and society no longer provided comfort and belonging, now that reason had undermined all authority p536 concept of "spirit" (Geist) carries the weight of Hegel's anti-Kantian claim that knowledge arises out of the life of a people through their collective efforts [dialectical historical progression] over time to know the world and themselves p556 Marx's theory is best seen as further developing, often in important ways, certain aspects of Hegel's theory regarding alienation, the individual and a theory of knowledge basd on finite human existence p561 Nietzche sees the "historical sence" of his day as a kind of induced sleeplessness that inhibits decisive action p562 Nietzsche's will to power represents an expansion of Shopenhauer's will to live that is more consistent with the Dionysian impulse of self-overcoming, of becoming, of destroying for the sake of creation p589 German immigrants.. study group to keep up with German thought.. Saint Louis Philosophical.. English translations of Hegel's.. German immigrants to support the abolishment of slavery p596 James also accepted an instrumentalist conception of theories. He held that a theory is not "an absolute transcript of reality" but an instrument of prediction whose only standard is utility in organizing experience.. Overbeliefs must not affect decisions that have social consequences; for example, decisions as jurors or public servants must be solely on evidence p633 The philosopher wishes to discover a similar key to reality, but according to Wittgenstein, philosophy is not a fact-finding activity. On the contrary, it does not so much disover patterns in reality as impose a conceptual model upon them. This act of imposition itself leads to misunderstanding, misdescription, and paradox p647 Popper draws an important distinction between verifiability and falsifiability. A theory may have overwhelming evidence in its favor, and yet the adducing of such evidence may never result in determining whether the theory is true. Verification is thus open-ended. Instead, scientific theories should be tested for falsifiability. A theory that in principle is falsifiable is scientific and not metaphysical [used in genomics] p704 For "existentialism" like "Enlightenment" denotes not so much a historical period as an attitude, a style, and a message. The attitude is that of repect for freedom and for being. The style is authenticity. And the message is the optimistic reminder. You can alwasy make something out of what you've been made into p713 Jaspers believed that all philosophers who offered "proofs for the existence of God" actually aimed to prove God exists. But, of course, "a proven god is no god." On the other hand, "belief in revelation" (Offenbarungsglaube) is a dogmatic claim about a "proximate god" who "effects changes through intervention" and who commissions representative authorities. The alternative is "philosophical faith" (philosophische Glaube) #@# Zizioulas, Being as Communion, StVlad, 1985, ISBN 0-88141-029-2 p43 only way of excercising absolute ontological freedom for man is suicide; then freedom leads to nihilism.. limitation of personal freedom in the name of..symbiosis p70 By referring to Christ as the Alpha and Omega of history, the New Testament has transformed radically the linear historicism of Hebrew though, since in a certain way the end of history in Christ becomes _already_ present here and now p79 Now if a Greek mind was unable to say in_the_same_breath 'being and life,' the Chritian had to p80 Christ is the truth not because he is an epistemological principle which explains the universe, but because he is life and the universe of beings finds its meaning in its incorruptible existence in Christ p91 ekstasis signifies that God is love.. creates an immanent relationship of love outside_Himself.. _otherness_ of being p94 Creaturely truth is dependent.. communion_by_participation (as compared with God, who is truth as Communion_without_participation) p99 [Maximus Sch_in_eccl_hier 3,3:2] Old Testament are shadow; those of the New Testament are image [icon]; and those of the future state are truth p100 The authentic Greek patristic tradition never accepted the Platonic notion - adopted by Origen and St Augustine among others - in which perfection belongs to the _original_ state of things p102 [fall] no creative power in evil .. limitations and potential dangers inherent in creaturehood.. left to itself.. fall consists in the refusal_to make_being dependent_on_communion p121 freedom given by the Christ-truth to creation is precisely ths freedom from division and individualizationn creating the possibility of otherness within communion p129 Not only baptism and confirmation were separated in the West, but Christology tended little by little to dominate Pneumatology, the Filique being only part of the new development p135 local bishops-Churches can do nothing without the presence of the 'one'.. the 'one' cannot do anything without the 'many' [unanimity and consensus] p149 Catholicity.. _wholeness and _fullness and _totality of the body of Christ 'exactly as' it is portrayed in the eucharistic community. p156 The moment they admit a super-local structure over the local eucharistic community, be it a synod or another office, the eucharistic community would cease to be in itself and by_virtue of_its eucharistic_nature a 'catholic Church.' The moment, on the other hand, that they would allow each community to close itself to the other communities either entirely (ie, by creating a schism) or patrially [cq] (ie, by not allowing certain individual faithful from one community to communicate in another or by accepting to communion faithful excluded from it by their own community they would betray the very_eucharistic nature_of their_catholicity and the catholic character of the eucharist p161 eucharistic _anamnesis becomes not a mere mental operation but an existential realization, a _re_-representation of the Body of Christ.. no plan for a progressive movement can be achieved on a purely historical and sociological level.. _eschaton can only break_through history but never be identified with it. Its call to catholicity is a call not to a progressive conquest of the world but to a 'kenotic' experience of the fight with the anticatholic demonic powers and a continuous dependence upon the Lord and His Spirit p174 Mission requires _sending to the ends of the earth, whereas the eschata imply the _convocation of the dispersed people of G*d p185 epiclesis means escatologically that the Church asks_to receive_from G*d_what she_has already_received historically_in Christ_as if_she had_not received_it at_all, ie as if history did not count in itself p187 eucharist is on the one hand, a 'tradition' (paradosis) and a 'remembrance' (anamnesis)..At the same time, however, the eucharist is the eschatological moment of the Church par_excellence p207 Tradition is not just passed on from one generation to another; it is constantly re-enacted and re-received in the Spirit p218 two other parts of the procedure of ordination, namely _election by the people and acclamation of approval (in the East by crying 'axios')..early Church could dispence with the part of the election by laymen.. _outside.. different with the approval of the people within.. 'democracy' which makes the community a _condition for divine action.. _new, and not the old, _creation.. differ essentially from a human 'democracy' p242 not a juridical thing but a matter of charismatic _recognition.. true council becomes such only a_posteriori; it is not an institution but an event in which the entire community participates #@# Cavarnos ModGrkThough 1986 1969 0-914744-11-9 p12 Modern Greek Philosophy.. existential orientation (2) Personalism. (3) Idealism or Transcendentalism. (4) THe ranking of philosophy above science. (5) The ranking of Christian teaching above philosophy. (6) Christian eclecticism. (7) The use of ancient Greek philosophy as preparatory discipline p13 [Theodorakopoulos] "Man has a depth of immense potentialities; this is the soul" p14 He notes that Kierkegaard, whom twentieth century Existentialism regards as its creator, declare that he is a pupil of Socrates.. Geoegoulis.. notes that St Gregory of Nyssa, anticipating the views of modern existentialists, rejects so-called objectification p15 personalilty is the highest value, to which everything else is in principle subordinate.. identical with the soul p16 "Dialectical Personalism." Frangos seeks to reconcile the scientific vision of the world with the spiritual, in which personality is the supreme value p17 The ultimate end of the State [Tsatsos, 1975-79 President] says in his Studies_in the_Philosophy of_Law, is neither power nor material hapiness. THese are only means, usually necessary for the attainment of its true purpose, which is education for virtue.. [Idealism] affirmation of a reality other than the material, physical world p26 Androutsos here rejects the custom that has prevailed in the West of having two kinds of ethics, one religious and the other philosophical. This, he says, goes back to the medieval "double truth" theory, according to which what is theologically true may be philosophically false, and vice versa.. there must be one ethics.. must "utilize the materials provided both by the external and by the Christian tradition" pp50-1 In 1950 there was published in Athens, in English, a book entitled Towards_a Christian_Civilization. Though written by Alexander Tsirintanis (1903-), Professor of Jurisprudence at the University of Athens, it expresses not only his own avowed beliefs but also those of more that twelve hundred Greek professional men, including two hundred scientists.. "Coming to grips with the evil at its roots will mean in substance an opposition to the negation of Christian values. It was on that negation that the edifice of the civilization, whose ruins we are witnessing today, was built" p61 Benjamin of Levos. "Only then is man a likeness of God, when he has rendered himself actually rational and virtuous; and in order to become acually rational and virtuous one needs training and education" Alos characteristic is the following statement by the [diplomat] poet George Seferis (1900-), who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1963: "Learning is one of the noblest exercises of man and one of his loftiest aspirations. Education is the ruling factor of his life. And since these principles are true, we must not forget that there is good education - that which liberates man and helps him develop fully according to his nature - and bad education - that which perverts and dessicates and is an industry producing pseudo intellectuals" [Dokimes, 1962 p180] p65 Reason as conceived by these and other modern Greek writers is not to be identified with the reason of Western rationalism, but rather with that of the ancient Greeks, particularly Plato, and the Byzantines. It is not only discursive, but also contemplative, intuitive, capable of a direct apprehension of reality and of value. Reason is capable of distinguishing beauty from ugliness, and good from evil, as well as truth from falsehood. Even theologians, who tend to emphasize conscience as man's moral guide, assert the moral function of reason. Thus, Theotokis remarks that "reason (logos) is a light that illumines man in the distinction between good and evil"; while St Nektarios [Hypotyposis 1893 pp67-8] says: "Reason teaches an what the will of God is, what good and evil, the just and unjust are, and guides deeds towards ideal perfection" p68 calls reason a "merchant" and a "peddler".. unbridled imagination is Kazantsakis' ruling faculty.. derived from Scopenhauer's cosmic voluntarism, Bergson's pantheistic evolutionism, Marx's materialism, and Nietzsche's nihilism #@# Conley Rhet Eur Trad 1990 0-226-11489-9 p12 By means of his dialectical technique, Socrates [Phaedrus] establishes a model of an apparently legitimate kind of rhetoric. Unlike that professed by Gorgias in th dialogue of that name, the rhetoric Socrates describes is a a true "art" (techne) involving knowledge of reality (262Aff.), of the forms of discourse and of the corresponding kinds of souls (271Aff.) This rhetoric, morevover, does not corrupt, as Gorgias' did. The true rhetorician will adapt his discourse to the type of soul being addressed, proceeding by the way of diaresis to "carve up (diatemnein) the subject at the joints" (see 265E), thus communicating the truth effectively. This "rhetoric" is dialectical in character, then; and it is the role of dialectic in that it guarantees its legitimacy (277B-278B) p15 Pisteis are either "artisitic" or "nonartistic," and it is the former that are able to be treated systematically. The three sources of persuasion that fall within the purview of te art of rhetoric are the character of the speaker as it comes acros in the speech (ethos), the disposition of the audience toward the speaker and the matter at hand (pathos), and the speech (logos) itself "when we have demonstrated a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to the case in question" (1356a1-21). These are at all times coordinate and interact mutually, distinguishable but not seperable from one another, although one may occasionally take precedence over the others (3.12, 1413b3ff). p30 The teaching of rhetoric centered on an analysis of the art into component parts: invention, the modes of discovering arguments; arrangement; expression, which included the study of style in argumentation; memory; and delivery, including both pronounciation and gesture. This five-part analysis persists throughout the history of rhetoric into the eighteenth century. Similarly, the analysis of the parts os speech into five (sometimes six) parts became a pedagogical commonplace. Every speech, students were taught, had to include a prologue (prooimion in Greek, exordium in Latin); narration (diegesis, naratio); arguments (pistis, sonfirmatio); rebuttal (lysis, reprehensio); conclusion (epilogos, peroratio). This format, too, persists into the eighteenth century p66 Perhaps the most famous figure from this period is Photius, Patriarch of COnstantinople twice in the ninth century, a strong oppnent of Iconocalsm, and the greatest scholar of his time. The works of Photius that have a bearing on rhetoric for this period are his Lexicon, the encyclopaedic Bibliotheca (sometimes found with the title Myriobiblos, "Of Ten Thousand Books") and a corpus of 18 sermons. The Lexicon is, essentially, a dictionary of Attic Greek, the dialect of high literacy and of the grand style in rhetoric. pp135-6 Richard Sherry (1506-56?).. best-known work is a Treatise on Schemes an Tropes (1550, revised in 1555), which he conceived as an introduction for grammar school students to "elocution" - that is, expression.. calls the third part rhetoric. The book is divided into two major parts, the first treating schemese and tropes considered from a "grammatical" perspective and the second treating them from an "oratorical" oerspective. The grammatical sction consists of three parts: (1) a survey of the "schemes" (figures) if diction and composition; (2) the faults and virtues of diction and composistion; an (3) tropes. These topics are "grammatical" because they have to do with clear, proper, and refined usage and expression. The :oratorical" section takes up rhetorical figures, presenting them accrding to Melanchthonian three orders of figures: (1) figures of expression, such as repetition, exclamation, and interrogation; (2) figures of thought: partition, enumeration, and the like; and (3) modes of amplification, the heeping of probacions," as he puts is #@# Kennedy Hist Class Rhet 1994 Princeton 0-691-00059-x pp4-5 in writings of Cicero in the first century BC and of Quintilian a century later, classical rhetorical teaching consisted of five parts that parallel the act of planning and delivering a speech.. The first of the five parts of classical rhetoric is "invention" (Gk heuresis, Lat inventio). THis is concerend witht hinking out the subject matter: with identifying the question at issue, which is called the stasis of the speech, and the available means of persuading the audience to accept the speaker's posistion. The means of persuasion include, first, direct evidence, such as witnesses and contracts, which the speaker "uses" but does not "invent"; second, "artistic" means of persuasion, which include presentation of the speaker's character (ethos) as trustworthy, logical argument (logos) that may convince the audience, and the pathos or emotion thatthe speaker can awaken in the audience. The artostic means of persuasion utilize "topics" (Gk topoi, Lat loci), which are ethical or political premises on which an argument can be built or are logical strategies, such as arguing from cause to effect.. basic divisions recognized by the handbooks and applying best to judicial oratory are (1) introduction, or prooemium (Gk prooimion, Lat exordium); (2) narration (Gk diegesis, Lat Narratio), the exposition of the background and factual details; (3) proof (Gk pist[e]is, Lat probatio); and (4) conclusion, or epilogue (Gk epologos, Lat peroratio) p233 By the third century he had become known as "Chrysostomos," or "the Golden Tongue," an epithet later also given to the Christian orator, John of Antioch. Dio was born in Prusa around AD 40 p261 The most important figure in the synthesis of Greek rhetoric and Christianity is Gregory of Nazianzus, rightly regarded as the greatest Greek orator since Demosthenes #@# Pelikan Divine Rhetoric 2001 0-88141-214-7 pp28-9 [Nazianzos] Ethos. Striving for the mean, which he defined as a Christian humility without excessive "submissiveness" and a no less Christian self-assertion withou "harshness," [Or 42.13].. characterized himself as one of those "who make public their treasure, unable to restrain themselves from giving birth to their piety, and without bestoring upon others the overflow of their blessongs" [Or 42.14] Pathos.. "Confidence [tharsos]" was defined by Aristotle as "hope of safety accompanied by an imagination that is near" [Rhet II v16 1383a].. "Shame [aischyme]" was defined by Aristotle as "a sort of pain and agitation concerning the class of evils, whether present or past or future, that seem to bring a person into disrespect" [Rhet II vi 2 1383b].. Logos. Because, as Aristotle specifies, persuasion deals with "things that seem to be capable of admitting two possibilities," and therefore with "things that seem to be capable of admitting two possibilites," and therefore with "things that are for the most part capable of being other than they are".. Gregory appealed to bishops and to people to preserve, protect, and defend loyalty to the secred Tradition at all costs. To that end, he invoked the authority of "witnesees": his hearers, "on behalf of whome and in whose presence I speak," were "my defense, my witnesses, and my crown of rejoicing"[Or 42.2] p74 Orthodoxy itself seemed to be in jeopardy when Antiochene exegesis sought to put a limitation on allegory. Yet in some of its outstanding representatives Antiochene exegesis was impeccably Orthodox p75 Not so, Chrysostom argued, "for nowhere in Scripture do we find any mention of the earth that is merely figurative." Hence the passage must mean that Christ as the master Rhetor sought to "put his hearers into a certain frame of mind" both by the prospect of eternal glory and by the promise of temporal gain, a literal "earth" that they would possess p78 The fifth book of Chrysostom's treatise On_The_Priesthood is a succinct description of the qualities that a Christian preacher and rhetorician must have. Among these, two were of special importance to Chrysostom, paradoxical though the combination may seen to be: an indifference to the plaudits of one's hearers, and the ability to speak skillfully. <<..if a preacher be indifferent to praise, and yet cannot produce the doctrine "which is grace seasoned with salt" [Col 4:6] he becomes despised by the multitude, while he gains nothing from his own nobleness of mind; and if on the other hand he is successful as a preacher, and is overcome by the thought of applause, harm is equally done in turn, both to himself and the multitude, because in his desire for praise he is careful to speak rather with a view to please than to profit>> [V:1-2] p99 Aristotle lists is "the character [ethos] of the speaker," which, he declares, "is almost, so to speak, the controlling factor in persuasion".. howeverthat such a sence of the character and credibility of the speaker "should result from the speech, not from a previous opinion that the speaker is a certain kind of person" [Rhet I ii 2-4 1356a].. Kennedy [1991 p184] goes on later to clarify that "in religious.. unsupported maxims made by an authoritative teacher can be effective, as in the case of many sayings of Jesus" p107 because of his "gentleness [epieicheia]" [2Cor10:1] Christ refrained from vindicating His authority in this way [Chrys 7:20] What He did say as the supreme Rhetor was "Did you give praise to what has been said? No, I do ot want applause.. One thing only do I wish, that quietly and intelligently listening, you should do what is said. That is the applause, this is the panegyric [Chrys 5:37] p117 "The second [depends] upon putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind [[ton akroaten diatheinai pos]]. [Rhet I ii 3 1356a] And again: "[[There is persuasion]] through th ehearers when they are led to feel emotion [[pathos]] by the speech; for we do not give the same judgement when greived and rejoicing or when friendly an dhostile" [Rhet II iv 32 1382a] p124 Throughout the Sermon on the Mount, the divine Rhetor, being guided by an awareness of the limits of what His audience were equipped to handle at this time, exercised "so much reserve in His language, that He might not startle His hearers" [Chrys 5:17] p125 Instead of delivering advice or issuing commands to them at the outset of the Sermon, He began by pronouncing the Beatitudes, "making His word less burdenson and opening to all the course of His discipline" [Chrys 5:3].. closing paragraphs he reiterated that "not wealth, not strength of body, not glory, not power.. but only the possession of true virtue" was the mark of the true disciples of Christ [Chrys 7:25] "a noble spirit, a rock laughing waves to scorn, a house unshaken," so that just "as he who wraps up fire in a garment, does not extinguish the flame, but consumes the garment, so he that is doing harm to virtuous men, and oppressing them, binding them, makes them more glorious, but destroys himself" [Chrys 7:26] p134 Aristotelian rhetorical category of "logos, the message of change".. most all-inclusive metaphor for change in the Sermon on the Mount, one that had all the attributes of "clarity and sweetness and strangeness" that characterize an effective metaphor according to Aristotle's RHetoric [III ii 8 1405a] was announced already in its opening words, the first of the Beatitudes, "Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven".. pushed this change to the utter extreme of commanding "Love your enemies" p141 There was, Chrysostom admonished, "nothing that makes us so like God as being ready to forgive the wicked and the wrongdoers" [Chrys 6:14-15] #@# College Manual of Rhetoric, Charles Sears Baldwin (Yale) Longmans Green 1906 p76 deductive reasoning which is perhaps most obviously a priori is the argument from antecedent probability.. shows which way the probablitieis lean before the case is investigated; it establishes a presumption p77 The typical form ofdeductive reasoning is the syllogism.. major premise is ideally a universal, indisputable truth; the minor premise indicates the course of the argument, which is to prove that a particular instance falls with in that universal, indisoutable truth; the conclusion follows of necessity p78 informal syllogism, or a syllgoism whose major premise is not the ideal "universal," but simply an accepted generalization, is called an enthymeme. Persuasion, then according to Aritotle, deals with enthymemes, with incomplete syllogisms.. John Stuart Mill in the five "canons" what are known by that name.. "I The Canon of Agreement. If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigtion have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance is which alone all the instances agree is the cause (or effect) of the given phenomenon" p79 " II. The Canon of Difference. if an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs and an instance in which it does not occur have every circumstance save one in common, that one occuring only in the former, the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part of the cause, of the phenomenon. The principle is that of comparing an instance of the occurence of a phenomenon with a similar instance in which it does not occur, to discover in what they differ" pp79-80 "III The Canon of the Joint Method of Agreement and Difference. If two or more instances in which the phenomenon occurs have only one circumstance in common, while two or more instances in which it does not occur have nothing in common save the absence of that circumstance, the circumstance in which alone the two sets of instances differ is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part" p80 "IV. The Canon of Residues. Subduct from any phenomenon such part as is known by previous inductions to be the effect of certain antecedents, and the residue of the phenomenon is the effect of the remaining antecedents" pp80-1 "V. The Canon of Concomitant Variations. Whatever phenomenon varies in nay manner, whenever another phenomenon varies in some particular manner, is either a cause or an effect of that phenomenon, or is connected with it through some fact of causation" p82 Working Rules for Ordinary Induction.. Beware of rash generalizations.. Test your supposed cause or effect both positively and negatively.. Try to show that your alleged cause is.. the only material change.. or.. no other supposed cause accounts so well.. Look for a parallel rise and fall of your supposed cause and efect p83 collection of facts which, though it is not sufficient for a solid inference of cause, yet points in that direction.. called circumstantial p84 Another form of reasoning, not strictly either deductive or inductive, is the argument from analogy (a_pari), the argument from history. This amounts to saying that like things have like results. Its force depends on the extent and degree of likeness. p172 Every subject of description thus presents to the writer a complexity of details.. cannot write at all, much less compose, without selection. And the selection must be personal [heuristics!].. remember always the point of view; the mental point of view which is the writer's conception, and the physical point of view.. details which he knows to be there, but which, from the point of view fixed by him, are not visible.. error of the false elaboration of background p175 allusions to history.. an inheritance.. tiresome when, instead of allusion, it is bald reference or expository comment.. interlard scenery with history is tolerable only in a guide-book, which is not in our sence descriptive at all but expository. THe facts of history must be presented in description just as the facts of observation are presented, by suggestion p177 masters of description see minutely.. habit acquired by practice.. scientist scents a classification; the artists sents another kind of import.. artistic value of detail is its significance p178 natural difficulty in holding more than a few details together [short term mem holds about five items].. avoid explanatory interpolations p180 often advisable also to indicate a simple plan by which the details may be mentally grouped.. panoramas are not often successful in description p181 Details, being seen afterward, should be described afterward. Of devices, one of the most common is contrast.. have an order, and to say as little about it as possible.. p182 danger of letting the narrative parts, which for purposes of description are mere trnsitions, mere machinery, occupy too much space p183 suggesting something by its effects upon the actors or bystanders #@# Perelman New Rhetoric 1958 Notre Dame 1969 0-268-00446-3 p16 To engage in argument, a person must attach some importance to gaining adherence of his interlocutor, to securing his assent, his mental cooperation. p20 in the passage in the Rhetoric [II 12-17] dealing with the factors of age and fortune in audiences, Aristotle includes many shrewd descriptions of a differential-psychological nature that are still valid today p24 The great orator, the one with a hold on his listeners, seems animated by the very mind of his audience p28 We are going to apply the term persuasive to argumentation that only claims validity for the particular audience, and the term convincing to argumentation that presumes to gain the adherence of every rational being p31 For a composite audience, such as a parliamentary assembly, will have to be regrouped as a single entity to make a decision, and it is extremely easy for the opponent of an incautious speaker to turn against him all the arguments he directed to the different parts of the audience, either by setting the arguments against each other so as to show their incompatibility or by presenting them to those they were not meant for p37 Dialogue, as we consider it, is not supposed to be debate, in which the partisans of opposed settled convictions defend their respective views, but rather a discussion, in which the interlocutors search honestly and without bias for the best solution to a controversial problem. Certain contemporary writers who stress this heuristic viewpoint, as against the eristic one, hold that discussion is the ideal instrument for reaching objectively valid conclusions [Baird ADD p307 1950] p41 It also very often happens that discussion with someone else is simply a means we use to see things more clearly ourselves p57 Nevertheless, all societies are anxious to secure unanimity, for they are aware of its value and foce. Thus opposition to an accepted value may lead a person to prison or a mental institution p77 abstract values, such as justice or truth, and concrete values, such as France or the Church. A concrete value is one attaching to a living being, a specific group, or a particular object.. Western morality.. Greco-Roman.. obligation, fidelity, loyalty, solidarity, and discipline.. Confucius' five universally binding obligations - between rulers and the ruled, father and son, husband and wive, older brother and younger brother, friend and friend p91 Aristotle [Topics III 2] says that the more difficult is preferrable to the easier, "for we appreciate the possession of things that cannot easily be acquired" p103 arguments that are valid for some people have no validity for others, who may even find them very strange p106 once a decision has been taken, it cannot be changed except for sufficient reason p107 fear of creating a precendent which crops up in so many decisions pp110 ad_rem corresponds to an argument that is claimed to be valid for all reasonable beings, that is, ad_humanitatem. Argument ad_humanitatem would be a special, but important, case of ad_hominem p111 Argument ad_hominem must not be confused with argument ad_personam, which may be defined as a personal attack on the opponent and which aims essentially at disqualifying him p140 universal values, which are regarded as the instruments of persuasion par_excellence, are designated by the notions which are most confused p147 To create emotion, it is essential to be sepcific.. The more specific the terms, the sharper the image they conjure up p152 absence of technique can be a method; even being natural can be deliberate behavior p198 logical approach assumes that one can clarify sufficiently the ideas one uses, makes sufficiently clear the rules one invokes, so that practical problems can be resolved without difficulty by the simple process of deduction.. practical man who resolve sproblems only as they arise.. do not want to commit themselves more than is necessary, who want to keep as long as possible all the freedom of action that circumstances will permit.. diplomatic approach.. avoid.. coming into conflict with a principle or solving, in any way, the conflict between two incompatible principles p207 Ridicule is often achieved through clever deductions drawn from what one is attempting to criticize.. reductio_ad_absurdum p213 The argumentative character of definitions always presents two closely connected aspects which must nevertheless be distinguished, since they deal with two prhases of the reasoning: definitions can be supported or validated by argument; they themselves are arguments p264 The causal link plays an important part in historical reasoning, which appeals to retrospective probability.. antinomy between the reflections on the cause by proceeding from a certain interpretation of the event and reflections on the event by proceeding from a certain interpretation of the cause p270 These reflections, opposed to the pragmatic argument, assume that moral and religious values are not subject to discussion, that the rules of truth and falsehood, of good and eveil, independently of their consequences, or at least of their actual and immediate consequences p274 Modern techniques of publicity and propaganda have thoroughly exploited the placticity of human nature which makes possible the development of new needs and the disappearance or transformation of old ones. These changes confirm that only ends stated in a general and vague manner remain invariant and universal and that the end is often made cleare by examination of the means [Barnes 1948 Ari Soc; vs Maslow?] p290 Hyperbole differs from the usual argumentation by means of unlimited development in that it is not justified or prepared, but fired with brutality: its role, however, is to give a direction to thought, to guide it toward a favorable evaluation of this direction, and only by a return shock is it intended to give an indication of the significant term p295 The object, defined in terms of its properties, provides the modl for a concept of the person, stabilized on the basis of certain of his acts, which are transformed into qualities and virtues and which are integrated into an unvarying essence. But if the person did not have the power of self-transformation, of change, of conversion and could not somehow turn his back on the past, education would be a farce, morality would be without meaning, and the ideas of responsibility, of guilt, and of merit, which are bound up with the idea of freedom of the person, would have to be abandoned in favor of a simple pragmatic appraisal of behavior p342 The double hierarchy argument makes it possible to base a contested hierarchy on an accepted hierarchy. It is therefore most useful when rules of conduct require justification p355 Acording to Karl Popper [1935 pp12-14; falsifiability], it is the weakening of a rule by the invalidating case, with the subsequent rejection or modification of the rule, which provides the sole criterion making it possible to verify a law of nature emprirically p373 [theme <- A:B::C:D <- phoros] A and B together, the terms to which the conclusion relates.. we shal call the theme, and C and D together, the terms that serve to buttress the argument.. we shall call the phoros.. phoros is better known than the theme of which it should clarify the structure or establish the value p403 Any analogy - unless like allegory or parable, it is confined within a rigid form - turns into metaphor quite spontaneously p413 The dissociation of concepts, as we understand it, involves a more profound change that is always prompted by the desire to remove an incompatibility arising out of the confrontation of one proposition with others, whether one is dealing with norms, fats, or truths. There are practical solutions enabling the difficulty to be resolved exclusively on the plane of action; they can prevent the incompatibility from occuring, or dilute it in time, or sacrifice one or even both of the conflicting values. At this practical level, the dissociation of notions amounts to a compromise p464 The self-evident, as the criterion of validity, is the authority for totally discrediting all_argumentation, on the grounds that it is effective thought it does not provide real proof and can therefore be rooted only in psychology, and not in logic, even in the broad sence of the term p467 Certain figures, such as those of insinuation, reticence, litotes, reduction, and euphemism, are a part of the techniques of restraints insofar as the speaker expects that they will be interpreted as the expression of a desire for moderation p469 damage caused by anticipation of an argument extends to discourse of the kind in which the conclusion is known in advance and so no freedom is left to the speaker p472 Sometimes, however, convergence can be verified and then we have what Whewell calls consilience, which regards as the most secure foundation for inductive reasoning p474 advantages offered by the accumulation of arguments fall into two groups: those that have to do witht he relations between arguments and those that are referable to the diversity of audiences p480 Napoleon was afraid that long preambles to laws would weaken their authority p501 In legal proceedings, the ancient orators used to end their speech with an attack on the person accused so as to rob, in advance, his defense of all value, thus making it necessary for the accused to regain in his exordium the goodwill of his hearers and judges, by trying to get rid if the unfavorable state of mind created by his adversary's peroration #@# Diplmcy (Negoc Souverains) Callieres 1647-1717 1983 Leicstr 0-7185-1216-2 p70 [Richeleu Pol Test 1688] "That inferior minds confine their thoughts within the bounds of the country where they are born; but those to whom God has given a greater degree of light, omiting nothing that may be of defense to them from afar" p73 knowing the force and efficacy of negotiations; every day's experiences furnish us with sensible effects thereof. They occasion sudden revolutions in great States; they arm Princes and whole nations against their own interests; they raise seditions, hatreds, and jealousies; they form leagues, and other treaties of different atures among Princes and States who have opposite interests; they destroy and break the strictest unions. And it may well be said, the art of negotiating, according as it is ill or well managed, gives the form, good or bad, to general affairs, and likewise to a great number of particular ones; and that it has a greater power over the conduct of men than all the laws that have been enacted p75 talents required are: a spirit of attention and application, which is not capable of being distracted with pleasures and frivolous amusements; a right judgement, which may be able to comprehend things clearly as they are and pursue the main point by the shortest and most natural ways, without insisting upon niceties, and vain subtleties, which usually discourage those we treat with; a quick penetration to be able to discover the secrets of men's hearts, and to take advantage of the least motions of their countenances, and of the other effects of their passions, which escape sometimes even men of the greatest dissimulation; a spirit fertile in expedients, for overcoming the difficulties which arise in adjusting the interests wherewith one is charged; a readiness of mind to be able to give a proper answer to matters that are unforeseen, and by the judicious answers to avoid a slippery step; and evenness of temper, and a sedate and quiet disposition, always ready to hear patiently those whome he treats; a free access, courteous, civil and agreeable; an easy and engaging carriage, which contributes much to gain the affections of those whom we have to do with; whereas a grave and cold air and a severe rugged manner, commonly disgusts, and causes aversion p76 that he take care to avoid falling into the error of a famous foreign ambassador [Dijkvelt?] of our own times, who was so hot in dispute, that when he was little warmed by contradiction, he would often disclose secrets of importance, the better to maintain his argument.. An able minister will take care that no man shall penetrate into his secret before the proper time, but it is necessary likewise, that he know how to conceal this reservedness from those with whom he treats. He must appears to be frank and open with them.. commerce of mutual intelligence; one must give, in order to receive p78 But those expenses must be laid out with artifice, so as that the persons for whom the presents are intended may be able to receive them with decency and safety p79 We have seen musicians and opera women, who, by the free access thay had to certain Princes and their ministers have discovered very great designs.. There is no readier way to defeat any great design, than by divulging a secret at a proper time p82 minister ought to have a steadiness of mind as well as courage. There are some people who are naturally courageous and brave, who have not this sort of firmness; which consists in closely pursuing a resolution, when it is once taken after due deliberation, and not to vary in his conduct upon the different ideas which frequently present themselves to minds that are naturally irresolute. This weakness is common to persons of a lively imagination p83 error to believe, according to the vulgar opinion, that an able minister ought to be a great master in the art of deceit..leaves a grudge and a desire of revenge p84 nobody should ever doubt of what he promises.. If the times become difficult, and any misfortune happens to him, these masters of deceit will be the first to undo him by their treachery and will always join with the strongest side pp86-7 very difficult for a man who is easily worke dup into a passion to keep his secret when his choler [choleric:irrascible] is raised.. [Mazarin] had the dexterity to put him in a passion and, by that means, discovered what he could never have been able to have penetrated if the duke [Feria] had known how to restrain his passion.. speak little and hear a great deal.. not much in haste; that he does not think of ending for ending's sake but to end with profit, and to take advantage of all the favourable conjectures that offer, and especially of our impatience p88 A minister ought not only not to be subject to any humours or whims of his own, but he ought to know how to accomodate himself to those of others. He ought to be as Proteus in the fable: always ready to put on all sorts of shapes, according as occasion and necessity may require. He must be gay and cheerful with young Princes, who love mirth and pleasure; he is to be serious with those who are serious; and all his attention, all his care, all his passions, and even his diversions, should tend to only one end, which is: to procure success in the affairs with which he is charged p96 not prudent for him to defer the study of the government of every cuntry to which he is sent till he arrives there, for that is to travel into unknown countries, and to expose one's self to the dangers of going astray.. are usually so full of our own manners and customs, that they believe those of all nations ought to resemble them.. although there is no difference in the name of dignity.. advisable for a good minister to know wherein these differences of governments do consist, that he may be able, according to the several conjuntures, to make use of those opposite powers, in order to attain his ends.. finding out means to make them quit their prejudices and prior engagements, and to enter into new ones, which is the great art of negotiation p97 not sufficient to search for them in books. They are acquired much better by conversing with men employed in those kind of affairs p99 ought likewise not to bestow too much of their time on those studies; one that is engaged in public business ought to consider that he is designed for an active life, and not to spend too much of his time in his closet; that his chief study ought to be to inform himself of what passes among the living, preferably to what passed among the dead p110 saying of an ancient philosopher [Aristotle Ethics], that the friendship which os between men, is only a commerce wherein everyone seeks his own interest.. none of them but what are founded on their mutual advantages; and when both sides do not find their advantage by the treaties, the do not subsist long and they fall of themselves. So that the great secret of negotiation is to find out the means of reconciling those common advantages, and making them, if it is possible to keep even pace together p111 devouring to gain his point by the force of reason and persuasion, will give himself haughty airs, pretending to threaten people into a compliance with his proposals, he ought to have an army ready.. Prince who no longer has enemies that are capable of gainsaying his pleasure, imposes tributes on the other neighboring potentates; But a Prince who labours to aggrandize himself, and who has potent enemies, ought to be liberal and bountiful towards his inferiors, that he may augment the number of his friends and allies, and he ought not to exert his power, except in doing good p115 may and ought to discover what are the prominent passions and inclinations of the Prince with whom he resides: whether he be ambitious, whether he be a man of application and industry; whether he loves war, or prefers his ease or pleasures to business; whether he governs by himself, or is goverend by others, and how far; what is the genius, th einclinations, and the interests of those who have the management of him. He ought to inform himself exactly the condition of his forces, both by land and sea; the number of his strong towns and castles.. intrigues that are in the court, whether they be factions and divisions p116 A good table is the easiest and best way of getting intelligence of what passes, when the people of the country are at liberty to go and dine with the ambassador.. occasions of joy or grief.. pay this civility p117 until he receives his master's orders, but ought to signify to the Prince that he knows his master's intentions so well, that he can assure him beforehand p122 better to send back such ambassadors, than to punish them. Guards may be put upon them, to hinder them from continuing thair practices until they be out of the kingdom; and this may be done under a pretext of taking care of their safety p132 Instructions, however judicious thay may be, are more or less useful in proportion to the degree of understanding which the person who is charged with them is endowed with. An able minister knows not only how to execute the orders of his master with dexterity, but he furnishes him with advices and expedients how to take advantage of the favourable conjectures that offer themselves for bringing his designs to bear p136 Secretaries of the embassy, chosen and paid by the King, would be of great use to preserve the secret of the negotiation, which is often entrusted with persons of an indifferent character, because the ambassadors grudge the expense that is necessary for procuring men of fidelity, and capacity to serve them well p137 ought especially to study the Prince, his humour, his inclinations, his virtues and his weaknesses, that he may be able to make right use.. no Prince but who has some confidant or other to whom he imparts with more than usual freedom his most important affairs, it is therefore highly necessary, that the minister should study at the same time the temper of the ministers and confidants p138 advantage of the passions of a Prince, or his ministers, such as those of a grudge for injuries received, or a jealousy against some other potentate.. passions prevail often over the greatest interests p139 One of the best means of persuasion, is to please. And to succeed in that, a minister ought to make it his business to say agreeable things, and to soften, by the choice of words, by the tone, the air, and the manner of expressions, those messages which are disagreeable in themselves. Princes are accustomed form the cradle.. certain truths which seldom reach their ears.. avoid shocking that pride p140 never give false commendations.. praise them on account of those things which are essentially inherent in them p141 kinswoman of the Pope's.. considerable sum at stake, the prelate [Odescalchi?] let the lady draw it, although he had won the game; and he threw down his cards under the table, after having cunningly showed them to the lady's chamberlain.. made him a cardinal p143 Whatever corruption and malignity may reign in the hearts of men, yet still there are but few who do not listen to right reason, especially when he who is master of it to a certain degree of perfection, studies always to employ it to make himself useful and agreeable to them, as much as is in his power. Every ingenious man, who has a strong desire to make himself agreeable to another man with whom he has business, most commonly succeeds in it, and finds out means to procure to himself a favourable hearing.. ought not for all that to abandon the pursuit of his design p147 There is hardly any man that will own himself to be in the wrong [Dale Carnegie & botanist], or to be deceived; or can be prevailed on to lay aside his own sentiments entirely in favor of those of others, when no other method is taken with him, but to contradict him by contrary reasons, however strong and and convincing the said reasons may be. But there are many who are capable of being persuaded to depart from some of their own opinions.. lay aside their prejudices.. However unreasonable the greatest part of men may be, yet they retain always that respect for reason.. make them sensible of it, without offending their pride and vanity p149 An able negotiator ought to take upon himself the care of reducing the articles of the treaty into writing; because he who drafts them has the advantage of having it in his power to express the conditions agreed on in the terms that are most favorable to the interests of his master, without deviating in the least from the particulars agreed on between the parties p151 When he has obtained the promise of any thing of importance for the service of his Prince, he ought to lose no time in procuring the accomplishment of it.. ought first to have very positive orders in writing, that he may not be blamed, nor disowned p152 settled correspondence with some of his own friends at court, who will take the pains to inform him particularly of everything that passes, that he may be thereby enabled to dissipate the false rumours p159 But there are few things which can remain long a secret among men who have a long commerce together: the intercepting of letters, and many other unforeseen accidents, to often discover them; and it were an easy matter to quote several instances of that kind here. It is therefore prudent in a skillful minister, to think within himself when it is in writing, that his dispatches may possibly be seen by the Prince or ministers, of whom he writes; and that he ought to word them, so that they may have no just occasion to find fault with them p169 usually men of learning.. especially with republics.. Princes, who prefer courtiers, and thos eof the army before them.. Man of the sword are also more likely ti insinuate themselves into the favour of the ladies, who commonly have a good deal of credit in most courts p173 However, as there is no general rule without an exception, a hard drinker succeeds sometimes better than a sober man, in treating with the minister of the northern countries; provided he knows how to drink without losing his own reason, whilst he makes others lose theirs p174 young minister is ordinarily presumptuous, vain, light and indiscreet.. old man is peevish, full of difficulties, finding fault with everything, condemnin the pleasures which he himself is no longer able to partake.. middle age is the properest for negotiations: because there one finds experience, discretion and moderation, which are wanting in young people; and vigour, activity and an agreeable humour, which forsake old men #@# Pers Self Portr Oldham & Morris 1990 Bantam 0-553-05757-X p18-9 Personality disorders, on the other hand, are long-term patterns of inflexible and maladaptive behavior that are manifest from adolescence. Without treatment thay last a lifetime.. certain personaility disorders create vulnerability to specific clinical-symptom syndromes. The acute conditions erupt under particular kinds of stress.. Most of the people who ocnsult mental health professionals have difficulties that can be traced, at least in part, to aspects of their enduring personality patterns.. Many people with disordred personality patterns do not realize that there is anything amiss with them pp71-2 Obsessive-Compulsive.. perfectionism.. details.. unreasonable insistence that others submit to exactly.. excessive devotion to work and productivity.. indecisiveness.. overconscientiousness, scrupulousness, and inflexibility.. restricted expression of affection.. lack of generosity.. inability to discard pp93-4 Narcissistic.. reacts to criticism with feelings of rage, shame or humiliation.. interpersonally exploitative.. grandiose.. believes that his or her problems are unique.. preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty.. entitlement.. requires constant attention and admiration.. lack of empathy.. envy p122-3 Dependent.. unable to make everyday decisions without an excessive amount of advice or reassurance.. allows others to make most of his or her important decisions.. agrees with people even when he or she believes they are wrong.. difficulty initiating projects.. volunteers to do things that are unpleasant.. helpless when alone.. fears of being abandoned.. hurt by criticism p143 Histrionic.. constantly seeks or demands reassurance, approval, or praise.. inappropriately sexually seductive.. emotion with inappropriate exaggeration.. uncomfortable in situations in which he or she is not the center of attention.. shallow.. self-centered.. style of speech taht is excessively impressionistic and lacking in detail pp167 Paranoid.. expects, without sufficient basis, to be exploietd or harmed.. questions, without justification, the loyalty or trustworthiness.. read hidden, demeaning or threatening meanings.. bears grudges.. reluctant to confide.. easily slighted.. questions, without justification, fidelity p188-9 Avoidant.. easily hurt by criticism or disapproval.. no close friends.. unwilling ti get involved with people unless certain of being liked.. avoids social or occupational activities that involve significant interpersonal contact.. reticent in social situations because of a fear of saying something inappropriate or foolish, or of being unable to answer a question.. fears being embarrasse by blushing, crying, or showing signs of anxiety in front of other people.. exaggerates the potential difficulties, physical dangers, or risks involved in doing something ordinary but outside his or her usual routine pp 212-3 Passive-Aggressive.. procrastinates.. argumentiative when asked to do something.. work deliberately slowly or to do a bad job.. protests.. avoid obligations by claiming to have "forgotten".. resents uselful suggestions.. obstructs.. scorns people in positions of authority pp235-7 Antisocial.. fails to conform.. irritable and aggressive.. fails to plan ahead.. no regards for the truth.. reckless.. lacks remorse p259 Scizotypal.. excessive social anxiety.. odd beliefs or magical thinking.. unusual perceptual experiences.. eccentric.. no close friends.. odd speech.. silly, aloof.. paranoid p279 Schizoid.. solitary.. indifferent.. aloof, cold p301-2 Borderline.. unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterized by alternating between extremes of overidealization and devaluation.. impulsiveness.. self-damamging.. shifts from baseline mood.. intense anger.. persistent identity disturbance.. emptiness or boredom.. frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment pp330-1 Self-Defeating [masochistic].. lead to disappointment, failure, or mistreatment.. renders ineffective the attempts of others to help.. following positive responds with depression, guilt, or a behavior that produces pain.. incites angry or rejecting responses from others and then feels hurt, defeated, or humiliated.. rejects opportunities for pleasure.. fails to accomplish tasts crucial to his or her personal objectives.. uninterested in or rejects people who consistently treat him or her well.. engages in excessive self-sacrifice that is unsolicited by the intended recipients of the sacrifice p354 Sadistic.. physical cruelty.. establishing dominance.. humiliate sor demeans.. disciplined.. unusually harshly.. takes pleasure in.. physical sufffering of others.. lied for the purpose of harming.. intimidation or even terror.. restrict the autonomy.. fascinated by violence #@# 48 Laws of Power, Rbt Greene & Elffers 1998 Viking 0670881465 p1 Law 1. Never Outshine the Master. Always make those above you feel comfortably superior.. do not go too far in displaying your talents or you might accomplish the opposite - inspire fear and insecurity.. p8 Law 2. Never put too Much Trust in Friends, Learn how to use Enemies. Be wary of friends - they will betray you more quickly, for they are easily aroused to envy. They also become spoiled and tyrannical. But hire a former enemy and he will be more loyal than a friend, because he has more to prove.. p13 Without enemies around us, we grow lazy p16 Law 3. Conceal your Intentions.. If they have no clue what you are up to, they cannot prepare a defense. Guide them far enough down the wrong path..intentions, it will be too late.. p31 Law 4. Always Say Less than Necessary.. the more you say, the more common you appear.. more likely you are to say something foolish.. p37 Law 5. So Much Depends on Reputation - Guard it with your Life.. once you slip, however, you are vulnerable.. learn to destroy your enemies by opening holes in their own reputations.. p44 Law 6. Court Attention at all Cost. Be conspicuous, at all cost.. more colorful, more mysterious.. p51 People are enthralled by mystery; because it invites constant interpretation, they never tire of it. The mysterious cannot be grasped. And what cannot be seized and consumed creates power p56 Law 7. Get others to do the Work for you, but Always Take the Credit.. valuable time and energy.. aura of efficiency and speed.. Never do yourself what others can do for you.. p62 Law 8. Make other People come to you - use Bait if Necessary.. you are the one in control.. better to make your opponent come to you, abandoning his own plans.. p69 Law 9. Win through your Actions, Never through Argument.. resentment and ill will you stir up is stronger and lasts longer than any momentary change of opinion.. Demonstrate, do not explicate.. p74 When caught in a lie, the more emotional and certain you appear, the less likely it seems that you are lying p76 Law 10. Infection: Avoid the Unhappy and Unlucky.. emotional states are as infectious as disease.. draw misfortune on themselves.. p82 Law 11. Learn to Keep People Dependent on You.. Never teach them enough so that they can do without you.. p89 Law 12. Use Selective Honesty and Generosity to Disarm your Victim.. gestures of honesty and generosity bring down the guard of even the most suspicious people.. Trojan horse.. p95 Law 13. When Asking for Help, Appeal to People's Self-Interest, Never to their Mercy or Gratitude.. do not bother to remind him of your past assistance and good deeds. He will find a way to ignore you... benefit him, and emphasize it out of all proportion.. p101 Law 14. Pose as a Friend, Work as a Spy.. information that will keep you a step ahead.. In polite social encounters, learn to probe. Ask indirect questions to get people to reveal their weaknesses and intentions.. p107 Law 15. Crush your Enemy Totally.. If one ember is left alight, no matter how dimly it smolders, a fire will eventually break out.. enemy will recover, and will seek revenge. Crush him, not only in body but in spirit.. p115 Law 16. Use Absence to Increase Respect and Honor.. more you are seen and heard from, the more common you appear. If you are already established in a group, temporary withdrawal from it will make you more talked about, even more admired. You must learn when to leave. Create value through scarcity. p123 Law 17. Keep Others in Suspended Terror: Cultivate an Air of Unpredictability.. predictability gives them a sense of control.. keep them off-balance, and they will wear themselves out trying to explain your moves.. strategy can intimidate and terrorize.. p129 Sometimes predictability can work in your favor.. lull them to sleep p130 Law 18. Do Not Build Fortresses to Protect Yourself - Isolation is Dangerous.. isolation exposes you to more dangers than it protects you from - it cuts you off from valuable information.. shielded from your enemies by the crowd.. p137 Law 19. Know Who You're Dealing with - Do Not Offend the Wrong Person.. never assume that everyone will react to your strategies in the same way. Deceive or outmaneuver some people and they will spend the rest of their lives seeking revenge.. never offend or deceive the wrong person.. p138-9 [Narcissistic?] Arrogant and proud.. very dangerous.. oversensitive and overactive pride, flee. Whatever you are hoping from him isn't worth.. [?] Hopelessly Insecure Man.. disappear for a long time. Do not stay around him of he will nibble you to death.. [Paranoid?] Suspicion.. Play on his suspicious nature to get him to turn on other people.. [Sadistic?] Long Memory.. calculate and wait.. coldblooded shrewdness.. cold and unaffectionate.. crush him completely or get him out of your sight.. [Obsessive?] Plain, Unassuming.. not take the bait because he does not recognize [value] it.. waste your time, energy, resources p145 Law 20. Do Not Commit to Anyone.. fool who always rushes to take sides.. playing people against one another, making them pursue you.. p156 Law 21. Play a Sucker to Catch a Sucker - Seem Dumber than your Mark.. make your victims feel smart.. they will never suspect that you may have ulterior motives.. p159 The feeking that someone else is more intelligent than we are is almost intolerable. We usually try to justify it in different ways: "He only has book knowlegde, whereas I have real knowledge." "Her parents paid for her to get a good education. If my parents had had as much money, if I had been as privileged..." "He's not as smart as he thinks." Last but not least: "She may know her narrow field better than I do, but beyond that she's not really smart at all. Even Einstein was a boob outside physics." p163 Law 22. Use the Surrender Tactic: Transform Weakness into Power. When you are weaker, never fight for honor's sake.. Surrender gives you time to recover, time to torment and irritate your conqueror, time to wait for his power to wane. Do not give him the satisfaction of fighting and defeating you.. By turning the other check you infuriate and unsettle him.. p171 Law 23. Concentrate Your Forces.. concentrated at their strongest point.. p178 Law 24. Play the Perfect Courtier .. indirection; he flatters, yields to superiors, and asserts power over others in the mot oblique and graceful manner.. pp180-2 Nonchalance. Never seem to be working too hard.. flow naturally.. Be Frugal with Flattery.. Arrange to Be Noticed.. Alter Your Style and Language According to the Person You are Dealing With.. Never Be the Bearer of Bad News.. Never Affect Friendliness and Intimacy with Your Mast.. he wants a subordinate.. Never Criticize Those Above Your Directly.. Be Frugal in Asking Those Above You for Favors.. Never Joke ABout Appearances or Taste.. Do Not Be the Court Cynoc.. criticism will rub of fon you.. Be Self-observant.. training your mind to try to see yourself as others see you.. Master Your Emotions.. learn to cry and laugh on command.. disguise your anger and frustration and to fake your contentment.. Fit the Spirit [Fashion] of the Times.. Be a Source of Pleasue.. control your unpleasant qualities and obscure them when necessary p191 Law 25. Re-Create Yourself.. Do not accept the roles.. master of your own image rather than letting others define if for you. Incorporate dramatic devices into your public gestures and actions.. p197 theatrical timing to surprise and divert.. staging political events in a particular order and rhythm p200 Law 26. Keep Your Hands Clean.. never soiled by mistakes and nasty deeds.. using others as scapegoats and cat's-paws to disguise your involvement.. p204 wise to choose the most innocent victim possible aas a sacrificial goat. Such people will not be powerful enough to fight you, and their naive protests may be seen as protesting too much - may be seen, in other words, as a sign of their guilt. Be careful, however, not to create a martyr. It is important that you remain the victim, the poor leader betrayed p210 favor done indirectly and elegantly has ten times more power p211 Search out ways to make yourself the cat's-paw, indirectly extricating your friends from distress without imposing yourself or making them feel obligated to you p215 Law 27. Play on People's Need to Believe to Create a Cultlike Following. People have an overwhelming desire to believe.. Keep your words vague but full of promise; emphasize enthusiasm over rationality and clear thinking. Give your new disciples rituals to perform, ask them to make sacrifices on your behalf.. p217 Keep It Simple.. promise of something great and transformative, and on the other a total vaguenes.. Emphasize the Visual and the Sensual over the Intellectual.. You need to amuse the bored, then, and ward off the cynics.. Create rituals for your followers; organize them into a hierarchy.. Disguise Your SOurce of Income.. come from the truth of your methods.. To keep your followers united.. create an us-versus-them dynamic.. make sure your followers believe they are part of an exclusive club, unified by a bond of common goals. Then, to strengthen this bond, manufacture the notion of a devious enemy out to ruin you.. followers will tighten and cohere. They have your cause to believe in and infidels to destroy p227 Law 28. Enter Action with Boldness. If you are unsure of a course of action, do not attempt it. Your doubts and hesitations will infect your execution.. Any mistakes you commit through audacity are easily corrected with more audacity. Everyone admires the bold; no one honors the timid.. p228 Lions Circle the Hesitant.. Hesitation Creates Gaps, Boldness Obliterates them p233 The moment the seducer hesitates, the charm is broken, because we become aware of the process, of their deliberate effort to seduce us, of their self-consciousness. Boldness directs attention outward and keeps the illusion alive. It never induces awkwardness or embarrassment.. Few are born bold.. You must practice and develop your boldness p235 To go through life armed only with audacity would be tiring and also fatal.. Timidity has no place in the realm of power; you will often benefit, however, by beign able to feign it. At that point, of course, it is no longer timidity but an offensive weapon: You are luring people in with your show of shyness, all the better to pounce on them boldly later p236 Law 29. Plan All the Way to the End.. The ending is everything.. all the possible consequences, obstacles, and twists of fortune that might reverse your hard work and give the glory to others. By planning to the end you will not be overwhelmed by circumstances and you will know when to stop.. p244 If you are locked into a plan too rigidly, you will be unable to deal with sudden shifts of fortune.. must build in alternatives.. Most people, however, lose less from overplanning and rigidity than frm vagueness and a tendency to improvise constantly in the face of circumstance.. Only having a clear objective and a far-reaching plan allows you that freedom p245 Law 30. Make your Accomplishments Seem Effortless.. All the toil and practice that go into them, and also all the clever tricks, must be concealed.. Avoid the temptation of revealing how hard you work - it only raises questions. Teach no one your tricks or they will be used against you.. p254 Law 31. Control the Options: Get Others to Play with the Cards you Deal best deceptions are the ones that seem to give the other person a choice.. Give people options that come out in your favor whichever one they choose.. p258 This unwillingness to probe the smallness of our choices stems from the fact that too much freedom creates a kind of anxiety pp259-61 Color the Choices.. one he preferred always seemed to be the best.. Force the Resister.. Push them to "choose" what you want them to do by appearing to advocate the opposite.. Alter the Playing Field.. reminede them of their dependence on the rails. Refusing them shipping, or simply raising their fees, could ruin their business. Rockefeller altered the playing field so that the only options the small oil producers had were the ones he gave them.. Shrinking Options.. better grab what he was showing them, because tomorrow they would have to settle for something worse, perhaps at even higher prices.. use on the chronically indecisive.. Weak Man on the Precipice..He would describe all sorts of dangers, exaggerating them as much as possible, until the duke saw a yawning abyss in every direction except one: the one Retz was pushing him to take.. use fear and terror to propel them into action.. implicate in your deceptions the very person who can do you the most harm.. buy their silence.. Horns of a Dilemma.. lawyer leads the witness to decide between two possible explanations of an event, both of which poke a hole in their story.. Deny the victim time to think of an escape p263 Law 32. Play to People's Fantasies.. Never appeal to truth and reality unless you are prepared for the anger that comes for disenchantment. Life is so harsh and distressing that people who can manufacture romance.. tapping into the fantasies of the masses.. p271 Law 33. Discover Each Man's Thumbscrew.. insecurity, an uncontrollable emotion or need.. pp272-3 Pay attention to gestures and unconscious signals.. revealed by seemingly unimportant gestures and passing words.. should seem to come from the heart. This will usually elicit a resonse that is not only as frank as yours but more genuine - a response that reveals a weakness.. FInd the Helpless Child. Most weaknesses begin in childhood.. grows older, the indulgence or the deficiency may be buried but never disappears.. Look for Contrasts. An overt trail that conceals its opposite.. Find the Weak Link.. Find the one person who will bend under pressure. Fille the Void.. insecurity and unhappiness.. Feed on Uncontrollable Emotions.. fear.. lust, greed, vanity, or hatred p281 You may stir up an action you cannot control.. Push timid people into bold action and they may go too far; answer their need for attention or recognition and they may need more that you want to give them p282 Law 34. Be Royal in your Own Fashion: Act like a King to be treated like one.. appearing vulgar or common will make people disrespect you.. p287 As children we start our lives with great exuberance, expecting and demanding everything.. expect less.. limitations that are really self-imposed.. If we start to believe we are destined for great things, our belief will radiate outward.. believing so firmly in their greatness that it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy p291 Law 35. Master the Art of Timing.. hurrying betrays a lack of control over.. patient, as if you know that everything will come to you eventually. Become a detective of the right moment.. stand back when the time is not yet ripe, and to strike fiercely when it has reached fruition.. p295-9 inner turmoil caused by our emotions tends to make time move faster, it follows that once we control our emotional responses to events, time will move much more slowly.. When you force the pace out of fear and impatience, you create a nest of problems that require fixing, and you end up taking much longer than if you has taken your time.. As time passes it will eventually prsent opportunities you had not imagines. Waiting involves controlling not only your own emotions but those of your colleagues, who, mistaking action for power, may try to push you into making rash moves.. Trick in forcing time is to upset the timing of others - to make them hurry, to make them wait, to make them abandon their own pace, to distort their perception of time.. Your mastery of timing can really only be judged by how you work with end time - how you quickly change the pace and bring things to a swift and definitive conclusion p300 Law 36. Disdain Things you cannot have: Ignoring them is the best Revenge.. The less interest you reveal, the more superior you seem.. p309 Law 37. Create Compelling Spectacles.. Dazzled by appearances, no one will notice what you are really doing.. p313 The visual, on the other hand, short-circuits the labyrinth of words. It strikes with an emotional power and immediacy that leaves no gaps for reflection and doubt. Like music, it leaps right over rational, reasonable thoughts.. Words put you on the defensive. If you have to explain yourself your power is already in question. The image, on th eother hand, impoes itself as given. It discourages questions, creates forceful associations, resists unintended unterpretations, communicates instantly, and forges bonds that transcend social differences. Words stir up arguments and divisions; images bring people together p317 Law 38. Think as you like but Behave like others.. If you make a show of going against the times, flaunting your unconventional ideas and unorthodox ways, people will think that you only want attention and that you look down upon them. They will find a way to punish you for making them feel inferior p321 Martyrdom serves no purpose - better to live on in an oppressive world, even to thrive in it. Meanwhile, find a way to express your ideas subtly for those who understand you. Laying your pearls before swine will only bring you trouble.. We all tell lies and hide our true feelings, for complete free expression is a social impossibility. From an early age we learn to conceal our thoughts, telling the prickly and insecure what we know they want to hear, watching carefully lest we offend them. For most of us this is natural - there are ideas and values that most people accept, and it is pointless to argue. We believe what we want to, then, but on the outside we wear a mask p325 Law 39. Stir up Waters to Catch Fish.. if you can make your enemies angry while staying calm yourself, you gain a decided advantage. Put your enemies off-balance: Find the chink in their vanity through which you can rattle them and you hold the strings.. p329 Petulence is not power, it is a sign of helplessness. People may temporarily be cowed by your tantrums, but in the end, they lose respect for you.. easily undermine a person with so little self-control.. repression drains us of energy.. nothing in the social realm, as in the game of power, is personal.. Our anger also has roots in the many interactions with others, the accumulated disappointments and heartaches p333 Law 40. Despise the Free Lunch .. usually involves either a trick or a hidden obligation. What has worth is worth paying for. By paying your own way you stay clear of gratitude, guilt, and deceit.. no cutting corners with excellence. Be lavish with your money and keep it circulating, for generosity is a sign and a magnet for power.. p334-5 Greedy fish are the con artist's bread and butter.. contagious: Unless you resist them they will infect you with the insecure feeling that you should have looked harder to find a cheaper price. Don't argue with them or try to change them. Just mentally add up the cost, in time and inner peace if not hidden financial expense, of th eirrational pursuit of a bargain.. Sadists seem to think that paying for something gives them the right to torture and abuse the seller.. Indiscriminate Giver.. want to be loved and admireed.. If they give to one and all, why should the recepient feel special? p347 Law 41. Avoid Stepping into a Great Man's Shoes .. will have to accomplish double their achievements to outshine them. Do not get lost in their shadow.. changing course.. disparage his legacy, and gain power by shining in your own way.. p366 plentitude and prosperity tend to make us lazy and inactive: When our power is secure we have no need to act. This is a serious danger, especially for those who achieve success and power at an early age.. How often our early triumphs turn u sinto a kind of caricature of ourselves p358 Law 42. Strike the Shepherd and the Sheep will Scatter.. stirrer, the arrogant underling, the poisoned of goodwill.. they are irredeemable. Neutralize their influence by isolating or banishing them.. p367 Law 43. Work on the Hearts and Minds of Others.. Coercion creates a reaction that will eventually work against you.. seduced becomes your loyal pawn.. Soften up the resistant by working on their emotions, playing on what they hold dear and what they fear. Ignore the hearts and minds of others and they will grow to hate you.. p373 Shaking them to the core, he softened their hearts. Play on contrasts like this: Push people to despair, then give them relief. If they expect pain and you give them pleasure, you win their hearts p376 Law 44. Disarm and Infuriate with the Mirror Effect.. mirror your enemies, doing exactly as they do, they cannot figure out your strategy. The Mirror Effect mocks and humiliates them, making them overreact.. illusion that you share their values; by holding up a mirror to their actions, you teach them a lesson.. p377-8 Neutralizing Effect.. following their actions as best you can, and they cannot see what you are up to.. Narcissus Effect.. simply the ability to mimic anothe rperson not physically, but psychologically, and it is immensely powerful because it plays upon the unsatisfied self-love of a child.. Moral Effect.. demonstrate your ideas through action.. give them a tatse of their own medicine p392 Law 45. Preach the Need for Change, but Never Reform too much at Once.. day-to-day level people are creatures of habit. Too much innovation is traumatic.. make a show of respecting the old way of doing things. If change is necessary, make it feel like a gentle improvement on the past.. p397 The fact that the past is dead and buried gives you the freedom to reinterpret it p400 Law 46. Never appear too Perfect.. Envy creates silent enemies.. admit to harmless vices, in order to deflect envy.. p406 He did not see that he had not only made no attempt to disguise the degree of his skills and qualities, he had imposed them on one and all, making a show of his versatility, thinking it impressed people and won him friends. In fact it made him silent enemies, people who felt inferior to him and did all they could to ruin him the moment he tripped up or made the slightest mistake p407 People cannot envy the power that they themselves have given a person who does not seem to desire it p410 Law 47. Do not go Past the Mark you Aimed for; In Victory, Learn when to Stop.. heat of victory, arrogance and overconfidence can push you past the goal you had aimed for.. Do not allow success to go to your head.. p415 success tends to go to your head and make you emotional. Feeling invulnerable, you make aggressive moves that ultimately undo the victory you have gained.. powerful vary their rhythms and patterns, change course, adapt to circumstance, and learn to improovise.. steady themselves, give themselves the space to reflect on what has happened, examine the role of circumstance and luck in their success p419 Law 48. Assume Formlessness.. shape, by having a visible plan, you open yourself to attack.. adaptable and on the move. Accept the fact that nothing is certain and no law is fixed. The best way to protect yourself is to be as fluid and formless as water; never bet on stability or lasting order. Everything changes.. #@# Adcock Greek Art War1957 UCal 0-520-0005-6 p2 But the Epic tradition did not provide them with an art of war; it provided them with a panorama of protagonists. In their own day war had become something far different: it meant the uniting of the armed men of the community to fight shoulder to shoulder, with an orderly, integrated valour. p4 not the constant occupation or preoccupation of the Greeks.. No form of combat could so plainly exhibit the community solidarity that was the essence of the Greek city-state. It was not the place for single-handed exploits, for the EPic aristeia of champions. The desire for personal distinction must be subordinate: it must find its satisfaction elsewhere, as in the great athletic festivals p7 battle was, as it were, a "mass duel," a trial of strength; and the verdict of the trial was accepted p10 Greeks in general had not, by instinct or training, the discipline that was the chief ingredient in Roman soldiership p12 Athenian general Miltiades could claim high credit for the victory of Marathon.. for his discernment that a moment had come when, for whatever reasons, he could take the Persians at a disadvantage p27 gap was opened in their line and into this Alexander charged. At the same moment Philip caused the phalanx to stop withdrawing and attack, and the battle was over. He had by his skillful use of the phalanx created, as it were, a flank where no flank had been. And he achieved what Napoleon said was one of the most difficult manoeuvres in battle, the going over from defence to attack with great speed and force at the right moment p34 This was the breaking through an enemy line by rowing two opposing ships and then wheeling round to take one or other of them at a disadvantage before it could manoeuvre to meet this attack. This manoeuvre plainly called for high speed and even more important, brilliant steering promptly supported by skillful oarsmanship. It was therefore, above all, the tactical device of highly trained crews in ships of the most skillful construction. A variant of this manoeuvre was to make the attacking trieme swerve so that its projecting bulkheads might sweep away the oars on one side of an opposing ship, while, just before impact, the oarage of the near sid eof the attacking ship wa drawn inwards out of harm's way p41 Thucydides onwards the truth was proclaimed that in war there is, and must be, a large element of the unexpected. It may be that ancient generals and admirals feared this as an enemy rather than sought to use it as a friend and ally. But there is a strategy which depends on the ue of fleets and their power of moving troops quickly and quietly. p51 Alexander possessed in an eminent degree. His greatness was shown by his swift decision when and where to strike p60 catapults could outrange all nonmechanical missile.. to keep down losses, what really destroyed the defences of cities was the battering ram, the sap, and the mine, or the tall siege towers p69 Aetolians used against hoplites was to allow them to advance and then to attack the with light-armed [bow & arrow] troops when they were far p76 Xenophon writes, "Wise generalship consists in attacking when the enemy is weakest, even if the point may be distant.. If you attack expecting to prevail, do it in full strength, because a suprlus of victory never caused any conqueror one pang of remorse" [Hipparch 4,4,24; 7,11] p87 character plays in generalship, and it may outweigh talent and technique. The whole career of Timoleon was a triumph of character, perhaps the highest to be found in the history of the Greek city-state.. resolute man who could resourcefully inspire his soldiers, and could turn a chance omen to good account #@# Handel, Masters of War, 2001, 3ed, frankcass.com 0-7146-8132-6 p11 Weinberger Doctrine.. vital interests.. sufficient force.. objectives must be clealry defined.. keep cause and response in synchronization.. public opinion.. last resort p27 "talent and genius operate outside the rules, and theory conflicts with practice" (Clausewitz, On War, p140) p45 In today's high-tech wars, theory almost inevitably precedes reality and experience because technological innovation.. widens the gap between theory and practice, generating increasingly unrealistic theories or doctrines of war p53 Finding and attacking the most critical point in the enemy's position is another problem that inevitably occupies every strategist p69 In an age when real-time communications did not exist, the need to make quick decisions, exlpoit opportunities or avoid defeat often cause local military developments to overrule remote political control.. Like politics, command on the battlefield is the art of the possible which requires the exploitation of fleeting opportunities or the avoidance of imminent disaster.. The neagative consequences of Hitler's interference with Rommel's decisions or in the battle of Stalingrad, for example, are well known. Another famous yet possibly apocryphal example was President Carter's direct intervention in the aborted raid on Iran. Accordingly, both Sun Tzu and Clausewitz recognize that, in exceptional circumstances, the military commander in the field must overrule political orders p79 Both Sun Tzu and Clausewitz view war as an essentially rational activity involving the careful and continuous correlation of ends and means. At the same time, they are fully aware of the crucial effect of non-rational factors such as morale, motivation, and intuition. Clausewitz, however, appears to be more conscious of the difficulty of relying on rational calculation. As a result, he assigns a greater role to the unpredictable influence of elements such as friction, chance, unreliable intelligence, and sheer complexity p83 Today, as much as in Clausewitz's time, there are still those who think that new and better theories of war can minimize the costs of waging war to the point where fighting and bloodshed will become unnecessary. This reflects the lack of realism bolstered by wishful thinking. If anything, the rols of moral factors has actually expanded in modern warfare (eg, the influence of real-time mass media on public opinion) p95 perceiving the nature of a war is a reciprocal and dialectical process in which it is important to consider how one side's perspective and actions affect the other side's actions and reactions.. true nature of war can only be better understood after the war has begun, when it is defined by a complicated series of interatctions between warring parties.. initial predictions must be revised continuously.. must remain flexible enough p102 "trinity - composed of primordial violence, hatred, and enmity, which are to be regarded as a blind natural force [people]; of the play of chance and probability within which the creative spirit is free to roam [mil]; and of it element of subordination, as instrument of policy, which makes it subject to reason alone [govt]" (Clausewitz, On War, p89) p113 The process of thinking, planning, and searching for a comparitive advantage - not an impulsive rush to engage the enemy - lays the groundwork for victory p129 Machiavelli argues that the city-state in which the people are unwilling to fight for their own interests is less likely to succeed in the long run p139 Among the force multipliers recommended by Sun Tzu are maneuver; reliance on intelligence; the extensive use of deception and diverionary measures achieve surprise; the 'indirect approach'; and the use of psychological means to undermine the enemy's will to fight p153 The weakness if Sun Tzu's appraoch lies in its implication that war can somehow be turned into a non-lethal intellectual exercise in which cunning and intelligence are central. On the ither hand, an erroneous interpretation of clausewitz's emphasis on force and the principle of destruction can cause force to be wielded too readily, without the careful consideration of non-military means; this would only make war more costly than necessary. But the choice need not be between either approach when an intelligent combination of both produces the proper balance p159 Clausewitz stresses the 'positive' approach of maximum concentration of one's own forces, but is less concerned with the enemy. Sun Tzu is chiefly concerned with the 'negative' approach of preventing the enemy from concentrating his troops through reliance in strategems that divide and disperse his forces. This leads Sun Tzu to a much greater appreciation of deception and diversion in war p171 Theoretically, the principle of continuity must be seen as the nexus of the three cases of interaction - (1) the maximum use of force, (2) the objective of disarming the enemy, and (3) the maximum exertion of strength - all of which to an extreme, to escalation, and in fact to non-stop war p175 Clausewitz asserts that even if the attacker has the advantage, the dearth of accurate intellignce will cause him to be either unaware of it or unsure that it is enough to defeat his enemy p176 Clausewitz to the subject of human nature - this time to the fact that in a world dominated so much by chance - courage, daring, boldness, and trust in one's luck are essential qualities for a great commander p185 The concept of the culminating point of victory (ie, on the highest operational and strategic level) is closely related to the problem of war termination. At the culminating point of victory, the victor has gone as far as he can without risking a reversal of fortune and attained the strongest possible position realtive to his opponent: now he must consider the issue of war termination - how to consolidate his gains on the battlefield into enduring political results (ie favorable, lasting peace) p198 History is replete with examples of decisive military victories that led nowhere because the victor was not ready to acknowledge the legitimate interests of the vanquished adversary p218 Sun Tzu is acutely sensitive to the psychological factors that enable the enemy's perceptions to be manipulated; he knows that those convinced of their own superiority are usually oblivious to the need to be on guard against deception p240 Clausewitz frequently compares war to a game of cards dominated by uncertainty, Jomini compares war to the more structured game of chess; Sun Tzu's theory of war, on the other hand, can be compared to the game of go p261 Sun Tzu prizes steadiness, resolution, stability, patience, and calmness, which enable a general faced with the chaos and adversity of war to make rational, calculated decisions. Generals who react without reflection, who are courageous but easily lose control, are most susceptible to manipulation by the enemy. When untempered by rationality and driven by rash impulse, courage ends in self-destruction p267 Sun Tzu's insistence on the necessity of making fast decisions in order to capitalize on unique opportunities implies that the commander must rely on his 'gut feelings'; after all, he has no time to contemplate an infinite number of ever-changing variables p273 Both Sun Tzu and Clausewitz believe that in this most critical test of military leadership, the commander must combine courage and daring with reflectiveness, but the two strategists differe in emphasis: Clausewitz, on the whole, prefers boldness to calculation, while Sun Tzu favors what we would call calculated risks p285 According to Corbett, naval strategists must accept the fact that war at sea is not usually a zero-sum game, since it is rarely possible to achieve full command of the sea #@# Thry Intl Pol Waltz (Harvard,Berkeley) 1979 MGH 0-07-554852-6 p51 balance-of-power.. 1. Act to increase capabilities but negotiate rather than fight. 2. Fight rather than pass up an opportunity to increase capabilites. 3. Stop fighting rather than eliminate an essential national actor. 4. Act to oppose any coalition or single actor which tends to assume a position of predominance.. 5. Act to constrain actors who subscribe to supranational organizing principles. 6. Permit defeated or constrained essential national actors to re-enter the system as acceptable role partners.. they are essential, interdependent, and in equilibrium with one another; and, as prescriptions for the actors, they are inconsistent and contradictory ([Kaplan, Syst&Proc] 1964, pp 9,25,52-53) p66 relevance of Thucydides in the era of nuclear weapons.. texture of international politics remains highly constant, patterns recur, and events repeat themselves endlessly. The relations that prevail internationally seldom shift rapidly in type or in quality. They are marked instead by dismaying persistence, a persistence that one must expect so long as none of the competing units is able to convert the anarchic international realm into a hierarchic one. The enduring character of international politcs accounts for the striking sameness in the quality of international life through the millenia, a statement that will meet with wide assent p117 Ever since Machiavelli, interest and necessity - and raison d'etat, the phrase that comprehends them - have remained the key concepts of Realpolitik. From Machiavelli through Meinecke and Morgenthau the elements of the approach and the reasoning remain constant. Machiavelli stands so clearly as the exponent of Realpolitik that one easily slips into thinking that he developed the closely associated idea of balance of power as well. Although he did not, his conviction that politics can be explained in its own terms established the ground on which balance-of-power theory can be built p118 A balance-of-power theory, properly stated, begins with assumptions about states: They are unitary actors who, at minimum, seek their own preservation and, at a maximum, drive for universal domination. States, or those who act for them, try in more or less sensible ways to use the means available in order to achieve the ends in view. Those means fall into two categories: internal efforts (moves to increase economic capability, to increase military strength, to develop clever strategies) and external efforts (moves to strengthen and enlarge one's own alliance or to weaken and shrink an opposing one) p120 pupose of the balance is "to maintain the stability of the system without destroying the multiplicity of the elements composing it" [Morgenathau, Pol Among Nations, 5ed Knopf, 1973, pp 167-74,202-207].. "the balance of power" can impose its restraints upon the power aspirations of nations" only if they first "restrain themselves by accepting the system of balance of power as the common frameork of their endeavors." Only if states recongize "the same rules of the game" and play "for the same limited stakes" can the balance of power fulfill "its functions for international stability and national independence" [pp219-20] p126 As soon as someone looks like the winner, nearly all jump on the bandwagon rather than continuing to build coalitions intended to prevent anyone from winning the prize of power. Bandwagoning, not balancing, becomes the characteristic behavior.. states work harder to increase their own strength, or they combine with others, if they are falling behind.. breaking apart of a war-winning coalition in or just after the moment of victory. We do not expect the strong to combine with the strong in order to increase the strength of their power over others, but rather to square off and look for allies who might help them p134 Thay are at once limited by their situations and able to act to affect them. They have to react to the actions of others whose actions may be changed by the reaction.. Great powers, like large firms, have always had to allow for the reactions of others p144 Because of their similarity, states are more dangerous than useful to one another.. Interdependence is reduced by increases in the disparity of national capabilities p192 According to the common American definition of power, a failure to get one's way is proof of weakness. In politics, however, powerful agents fail to impress their wills on others in just the ways they intend to.. I offer the old and simple notion that an agent is powerful to the extent that he affects other more than they effect him p205 States, and especially the major ones, do not act only for their own sakes. They also act for the world's common good. But the common good is defined by each of them for all of us, and the definitions conflict. One may fear the arrogance of the global burden-bearers more than the selfishness of those who tend to their own narrowly defined interests.. Close competition subordinates ideology to interest; states that enjoy a margin of power over their closest competitors are led to pay undue attention to minor dangers and to pursue fancies abroad that reach beyond the fulfillment of interests narrowly defined in terms of security #@# Keohane&Nye(Harvard) Power&Interdep 2ed 1989 ScottForsmn 0-673-39891-9 pp10-11 It is assymmetries in dependence that are most likely to provide sources of influence for actors in their dealings with one another. Less dependent actors can often use the interdependent relationship as a source of power in bargaining over an issue and perhaps to affect other issues pp24-5 Multiple channels [instead of govt] connect societies, including: informal ties.. nongovernmental elites.. banks or corporations.. multiple issues.. absence of hierarchy [hence tradeoff] among issues means, among other things, that military security does not consistently dominate.. Politics does not stop at the water's edge.. Military force is not used by governments toward other governments within the region, or on the issues, when complex interdependence prevails p45 During the heyday of the sterling standard, industrial production in France, Germany, Russia, and the United States increased from 50 percent to 400 percent faster than in Britain. Although the United States dominated the monetary system of the postwar period, Europe and Japan grew more rapidly than it did.. Ironically, the benefits of a hegemonial system, and the extent to which thay are shared, may bring about its collapse. As their economic power increases, secondary states change their assumptions. No longer do they have to accept a one-sided dependence which, no matter how prosperous, adversely affects governmentl autonomy and political status p53 Some regimes - for example in trade among major industrial countries - have persisted despite shifts in the underlying power structure; others - as we shall see in our study of oceans policy - have changed despite continuity of power.. States with intense preferences and coherent positions will bargain more effectively than states constrained by domestic and transnational actors [cf JSMill: belief=99interests] p55 set of networks, norms, and institutions, once established, will be difficult either to eradicate or drastically to rearrange.. Regimes are established and organized in conformity with distributions of capabilities, but subsequently the relevant networks, norms, and institutions will themselves influence actor's abilities to use these capabilities p78 Only in late 1958, when currency convertibility was achieved in Europe [Japan 1980], did the recovery regime give way to full implememtation of the regime agreed to at Bretton Woods in 1944 p101 In 1946, a British naval force made a costly effort to assert that the Corfu Strait off Albania was international waters. In 1958, the united States sent a naval force through the straits of Lombok to protest Indonesia's claim that it was territorial waters. The United States and the Soviet Union have refused to recognize Indonesian and Malaysian juridiction over the straits of Malacca. Between 1957 and 1967, Britain and the United States used naval gestures to counter Egyptian restrictions on Israel's navigation, particualry in the Straits of Tiran, but these efforts were not successful.. In 1968, the United States failed to respond with force to North Korea's seizure of the electronic surveillance ship Pueblo; but in 1975 it responded with force to the Cambodian seizure of the freighter Mayaguez p120 After 1971, American refusal or reluctance to support the dollar in foreign exchange markets was often taken as part of a strategy to force other countries to agree to international monetary reforms favored by the United States p139 The issue structure model helps us understand the collapse of the monetary regime in 1931 and makes a major contribution to explaining the breakdown of the Bretton Woods regime in 1971.. shaky world financial situation of the 1920s.. United States was not preparred to take strong action.. France resented British preeminance in the international monetary area, which was symbolized and supported by the fact that sterling had been returned to its prewar parity with gold whereas the franc had depreciated many times over p143 In 1886, half of the world's merchat tonnage (ships over 100 tons) was British, and in 1914, the British merchant fleet still represented 40 percent of world tonnage (and was four times larger than the second-ranking German fleet). Britain had both the interest to establish a free seas regime (except, as we said earlier, in wartime, which she treated as a special case) and the structural power to enforce it p155 In 1971, however, it was not a banker who advised Nixon to take strong action, but "Mr Peter Peterson, ex-president of Bell and Howell, a midwest corporation which became a conglomerate by being driven out of its original photographics by Japanese competition" [Economist 5Aug72 p62].. not that distant-water fishermen, shippers, ad the navy determined oceans policy themselves, or that the bankers controlled monetary policy absolutely; but that as long as opposition to these groups was not very strong, they benefited by being able to identify their preferences with contemporary political conceptions of America's role in world affairs. The particular interests of domestic groups and the perceived national interests of the political leadership reinforced each other p229 And such orderly delegation of authority in world politics is not likely. Leadership can take a variety of forms. In common parlance, leadership can mean: (1) to direct or command; (2) to go first; and (3) to induce. These definitions roughly correspond to three types of international leadership: hegemony, unilateralism, and multilateralism p237 attention to compensating groups that bear the heaviest costs of adjustment to change.. adjustment assistance in the 1974 trade legislation.. narrow adjustment assistance provision of the Trade Expansion Act that President Kennedy pressed as part of a grand security design in the early 1960s.. directly affect particular groups, and touch the lives of nearly all citizens. If domestic interest groups are powerful enough to block policies favored by the president - such as th epolicy of selling large quantities of grain to the Soviet Union in September 1975 - top officials may no longer be able to determine policy p246 Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia, Israel's of Lebanon, and the Iran-Iraq war all indicate that force remains an option in regional rivalries between small.. Nationalism has acted as a constraint on the superpowers, as both the failure of Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and the weakness of the American response to Iran's taking of hostages have indicated.. relatively low cost and effectiveness of the Eisenhower administration's interventions in Iran (1953), Guatemala (1954), and Lebanon (1958) with the more recent difficluties encountered by the United States in Iran, Nicaragua, and Lebanon during the 1980s p262 Just as allowing players in Prisoner's Dilemma to communicate with one another alters the nature of the game, so also institutions that increase the capability of states to communicate and to reach mutually beneficial agreements can add to the common grammar of statecraft and thus alter these results p269 [repr For Pol 60 Fall 1985 "Two Cheers for Multilateralism" ] For the Reagan administration in 1981, the United States was accepting too much govermental intervention disguised as international policy coordination. It viewed interest- and exchange-rate regulation as the job of the market and the IMF as a self-aggrandizing international bureaucracy. Increasing energy production at home was considered more important than strengthening the International Energy Agency (IEA) and its procedures for international policy coordination. Halting the proliferation of nuclear weapons, candidate Ronald Reagan once contended, was not "any of our business." An imperfect draft Law of the Sea Treaty could be safely abandoned. The administration's solution was not a more vigorous effort at multilateral cooperation, but a recovery of lost strength and US asseriveness p276 governments develop reputations for compliance, not just to the letter of the law but to the spirit as well. These reputations constitute one of their most important assets #@# Strateg Tht Am 1952-1996 Trachtenberg PSQ 104#2 1989 p303 hydrogen bomb that marked the decisive break with the past p307 War between the United States and the Soviet Union was not impossible.. question of deterrence could not be divorced from the question of use p309 game-like aspects of military policy became increasingly salient.. intellectual vacuum.. economists.. drawn into this vacuum p313 Wohlstetter was able to show in much greater detail just how vulnerable America's strategic forces were p314 Wohstetter laid out these basic ideas in "the Delicat Balance of Terror," [For Aff 37 1/59] probably the single most important article in the history of American strategic thought.. "If the Soviet leaders," Brodie [Strat in Msl Age Princeton 1959 p355] asked, "should ever decide that by a surprise attack they would confidently count on destroying our strategic retaliatory force, whose purpose it is constantly to threaten their existence, would it not be their duty as good Bolsheviks to launch that attack?" p321 Counterforce was not nearly as hopeless.. Soviets, moreover, did not go in for the kind of alert measures that were common practice in the American air force, and the situation evidently did not change much even during times of crisis.. How was the astonishing vulnerability of the Soviet nuclear force to be explained? The Soviet intercontinental force had evidently been starved for resources. The odd thing here was that the Soviets had spent more, by American estimates, on anti-aircraft artillery alone since 1945 than on their strategic forces - heavy bombers, missle submarines, and ICBMs. The explation for this bizarre behavor, Loftus and Marshall argued, had to do with established patterns of resource allocation rooted in the balance of bureauctatic power in the Soviet military establishment p325 It was unlikely that a rational enemy who chose to attack would use anything more than a small portion of his total force in the first wave [Wohlstetter and Rowen RAND 1May59].. Hence strategic forced would be reserved, and there would be something meaningful to counter.. Both counterforce and city defense carried with them "some danger of destabilizing the deterrent balance" p331 Under John F Kennedy, the strategy of massive retaliation was explicitly rejected.. something had changed after Vietnam p332 Schelling's case, was to transform strategy once again into tactics writ large - not military tactics this time, but bargaining tactics #@# Conv Deter & Conv Retal in Eur Huntington Intl Scty 8#3 Wtr83-4 p33 The standard reassurances of the validity of the American nuclear guarantee, as Henry Kissinger put it in 1979, "cannot be true" and it is absurd to base the strategy of the West on the credibility of the threat of mutual suicide" [in Myers NATO Westview 1980 p7] p39 An initial offensive by a strong an determined attacker, particularly if accompanied by surprise, inevitably will score some gains. As Saadia Amiel summed up the lessons of the 1973 Arab-Israeli war and the implications of precision guided munitions (PGMs): "without very clear offensive options, a merely passive or responsive defensive strategy, which is based on firepower and fighting on friendly territory, cannot withstand an offensive strategy of an aggressor who possesses a relatively large, well-prepared standing offensive military force" [Survival 20p59] p46 First, necessary to clear away the popular cliche that the offensive requires a three-to-one overall superiority. It this were the case, NATO's problems would be over. Under no circumstances, given the current balance and probable rates of mobilization on each side, could the Warsaw Pact achieve an overall three-to-one superiority over NATO. Most scenarios do not deviate much from Fischer's 1976 estimate [IISS pp24-5] that Pact superiorit in men in combat units would peak at about 2:1 two weeks after Pact mobilization began, assuming NATO mobilization lagged one week. Unfortunately, however, 3:1 overall superiority is not what is required to attack. It is instead what is required at the exact point of attack. p47 inferior in overall strength can still pursue an offensive strategy. History is full of successful examples. THe German offensive into France in 1940 and the North Vietnamese offensive in 1975 are two such cases. As US Navy FM 100-5 points out, other examples are the Third Army's attack through France in 1944, the US Offensive in Korea in 1951, and the Israeli Sinai campaign of 1967. In these cases, as in Grant's Vicksburg campaign (cited at length in FM 100-5 [20Aug82 p8-5] as a model offensive), the attackers succeeded "by massing unexpectedly where they could achieve a brief local superiority and by preserving their initial advantage through relentless exploutation" p56 Effective retaliation means credible retaliation, and in today's world, credible retaliation means conventional retaliation #@# Clash Civ Huntington Frn Aff Smr 1993 p26 The revival of religion, "la revanche de Dieu," as Gilles Kepel labelled it, provides a basis for identity and commitment that transcends national boundaries and unites civilization pp30-31 Ottoman or Tsarist empires and were only lightly touched by the shaping events in the rest of Europe; they are generally less advanced economically; the seem much less likely to develop stable democratic political systems p32 "We are facing a mood and a movement far transcending the level of issues and policies anf the governments that pursue them. THis is no less a clash of civilizations - the perhaps irrational but surely historic reaction of an ancient rival against Judeao-Christian heritage, our secular present and the world-wide expression of both" [Bernard Lewis Roots of Muslim Rage Atlantic v266 9/90 p60 Time 15Jun92 P24-28] p33 Historically, the other great antagonistic interaction of Arab Islamic civilization has been with the pagan, animist, and now increasingly Christian black peoples to the south. In the past, this antagonism was epitomized in the image of Arab slave dealers and black slaves. It has been reflected in the on-going civil war in the Sudan between Arabs and blacks, the fighting in Chad between Libyan-supported insurgents and the government, the tension between Orthodox Christians and Muslims in the Horn of Africa, and the political conflicts, recurring riots and communal violene between Muslims and Christians in Nigeria. The modernization of Africa and the spread of Christianity are likely to enhance the probability of violence along this fault line p37 Third, with respect to the fighting in the former Yugoslavia, Western publics manifested sympath and support for the Bosnian Muslims and the horrors they suffered at the hands of the Serbs. Relatively little concern was expressed, however, over Croatian attacks on Muslims and participationin the dismemberment of Bosnia-Herzegovina. In the early stages of the Yugoslav breakup, Germany, in an unusual display of diplomatic initiative and muscle, induced the other 11 members of the European Community to follow its lead in recognizing Slovenia and Croatia. As a result of the pope's determination to provide strong backing to the two Catholic countries, the Vatican extended recognition even before the Community did. THe United States followe dthe European lead. Thus the leading actors in Western civilization rallied behind their coreligionists. Subsequently Croatia was reported to be receiving substantial quantities of arms from Central European and other Western countries. Boris Yeltsin's government, on the other hand, attempted to pursue a middle course that would be sympathetic ti the Orthodox Serbs but not alienate Russia from the West p40 Georgy Arbatov's characterization of IMF officials as "neo-Bolsheviks who love expropriating othe rpeople's money, imposing undemocratic and alien rules of economic and political conduct and stiffling economic freedom" p46 truth of the response of the Indian defense minister when asked what lesson he learned from the Gulf War: "Dont' fight the United States unless you have nuclear weapons" p47 China has receiver Stinger missles from Pakistan. A Confucian-Islamic military connection has come into being, designed to promote acquisition by its member of the weapons and weapons technologies needed to counter the military poer of the West #@# How Countries Democratize Huntngton PSQ 106#4 1991 p599 weakening, reassuring, and converting the standpatters. Countering standpatter resistance often requiered a concentration of power in the reform chief executive. Geisel asserted himself as a "dictator of the abertura" in order to force the Brazilian military out of politics. Juan Carlos exercised his powers and peroogatives to the full in moving Spain towards democracy, not least in the surprise selection of Suarez as prinme miniter. Botha and Gorbachev, as we have seen, created powerful new presidential offices for themselves. Salinas dramatically asserted hispowers during his first years as Mexico's president. The first requirement for reform leaders was to purge the governemntal, military, and, where appropriate, party bureaucracies, replacing standpatters in top offices with supporters of reform. THis was typically done in selective fashion so as not ot provoke strong reaction and so as to promote fissions within the standpatter ranks. In addition to weakening standpatters, reform leaders also tried to reassure and convert them. In military regimes, the reformers argued that it was time to go back, after a necessary but limited authoritarian interlude.. "backward legitimacy" p600 As the reformers alienated standpatters within the governing coaltion, they had to reinforce themselves by developing support within the opposition and by expanding the political arena and appealing to the new groups that were becoming politically active as a result of the opening. Skillful reformers used the increased pressure from these groups for democratization to weaken the standpatters, and used the threat of a standpatter coup as well as the attraction of a share in power to strengthen moderate groups in the opposition pp601 principal lessons of the Spanish, Brazilian, and other transformations.. (1) Secure your political base. As quickly as possible place supporters of democratization in key power.. (2) Maintain backward legitimacy, that is, make changes through the stablished procedures p602 symbolic concessions.. two steps forward, one step backward. (3) Gradually shift your own constituency so as to reduce your dependence on governemtn groups opposing change and to broaden your constituency in the direction of opposition groups supporting democracy. (4) Be prepared for the standpatters to take some extreme action to stop change (for example, a coup attempt) - possibly even stimulate them to do so - and then crack down on them ruthlessly, isolating and discreditingthe more extreme opponents of change. (5) Seize and keep control of the initiative in the democratization process. Only lead from strength and never introduce democratization measures in response to obvious pressure from more extreme radical opposition groups. (6) Keep expectations low as to how far change can go; talk in terms of maintaining an ongoing process rather than achieving some fully elaborated democartic utopia. (7) Encourage development of a responsible, moderate opposition party, which the key grous in society (including the military) will accept as a plausible non-threatening alternative governement. (8) Create a sense of inevitability about the process of democratization so that it becomes widely accepted as a necessary and natural course of development even if to some people it remains an undesirable one p607-8 Overthrowing.. attention on illegitimacy..Encourage the disaffected groups to support democracy.. Cultivate generals..Practice and preach nonviolence.. Seize every opportunity to express opposition.. Develop contacts.. transnational.. Promote unity among opposition groups.. be prepared quickly to fill the vacuum #@# IntroArts Collins 1969 Columbia p1 architecture is usually not representative.. modify the landscape.. lintel or cross-beam rests on two or more posts p2 Arcuated construction (using arches, vaults and domes..).. arc is composed of wedge-shaped pieces, voussoirs, set radially. This makes feasible a far greater span.. push to the sides, called lateral thrust.. pointed arch, common in Gothic.. vault is a whole fabric of arches that forms a covering p5 steel frame and reinforced concrete construction it is possible to extend beams out over space (ie to cantilever them) [indeterminate stress] p7 Parthenon.. Persian destruction.. cut marble withour mortar, with wooden roof beams and certain iron reinforcements and bronze attachments.. center of the eastern pediment was lost in construction of the Christian apse p9 profiles of columns taper to the top and bulge in an almost imperceptible curve.. columns all lean a little toward the center.. Greeks themselves felt they were correcting for the spectator's eye the tendency of perfectly straight horizontal lines to appear to sag or for sets of parallel lines to deform themselves optically p11 [Amiens Notre Dame, largest Gothic] use of pointed arches, rib vaults and flying butresses enable vast spaces and at the same time to open up large areas of the wall to stained glass p14 St Peter's in Rome had originally been built for the Emperor Constantine in the forth century near the site of the martyrdom of St Peter in the circus of Nero.. Under Pope Julius II (1503-13) ambitious plans for a new structure in an new style led to demolation of the ancient basilica p19 Startling to the modern mind is the idea that until the Rennaissance polychromy was used extensively on all statuary p20 free-standing sculpture (sculpture in the round) and relief (sculpture attached to its background) p21 Phidias.. "Elgin Marbles".. Athena Parthenos.. flesh was of ivory and the drapery and accessories of gold with some precious and semiprecious stones.. metopes.. 92 slabs.. each side of the temple has a separate theme. Each theme is a contest.. On the east were Gods and Giants, on the west Greeks and Amazons, on the noth Greeks and Trojans (probably), and on the south Centaurs and Lapiths p22 frieze presents the Panathenaic.. summoned every four years.. procession of the free citizenry.. peplos, a robe for the statue woven by chosen maidens of Athens, was dedicated and placed upon the shoulders of Athena. Throughout the frieze we observe an insistence on isocephalism, the adjustment of the heads close to one horizontal p23 [Amiens] importance of ordering the encyclopedic vastness of the world is shown, for example, in the Four Mirrors established in the writings of Vincent of Beauvais: that of nature (creation, the vegetable and animal world, monsters and grotesques); that of science or instruction (human labor, the crafts and the arts); that of morals (the virtues and vices); and the mirror of history (the related Old and New Testament stories, apocryphal books, and the lives of saints.. contrast witht he relatively clear and sparse sculptures on the Greek temple, the sculpture of the cathedral was of countless and intermingling [clutter].. trumeau (post between the doors) of the central portal stands the Beau-Dieu, a figure of Christ triumphant over four grotesque animals, the lion (here a symbol of the antichrist), the dragon (devil), the adder (sin), and basilisk (death). Concerning this symbolism, see the 91st Psalm.. Above the Beau-Dieu, in the tympanum, Christ is seen in his most fateful role: here is the Last Judgement, presenting tiered scenes of the Resurrection of the Dead, the Blessed and the Damned, the Heavenly City above, with angels bearing instruments of the Passion, and Mary and John as Intercessors p24 vast majority of churchgoers of the thriteenth century were not able to read inscriptions, but were particularly responsive to visual images. St John, for example, holds the cup from which he drank poison; St James the Greater ears the cockle shells of a medieval pilgrim to his own shrine of Santiago de Compostela.. simple geometric multiples of one-two-four-eight (eg one column, two triglyphs and metopes, four mutules and lions' heads, eight roof-tiles).. Three for them was also basic, but it was the Trinity, a three-in-one and sacred, whereas four (the elements) was secular or mundane (the quartefoil).. an encyclopaedia carved in stone p25 St Peter with the key, St Nicholas with the three golden balls, St Barbara with the tower, St Margaret with the dragon.. Roman Sybils who had foretold, it was believed, the coming of Christ.. Profane and the Sacred -- a compendium of knowledge; but everything, as St Thomas puts it, "ordered towards God".. three days inside the Whale represent the resurrection of Christ, as Melchisedek offering bread and wine to Abraham represented the Last Supper.. cruciform church represented the Cross, and the weathercock on the spire the preacher who rouses the sleeping from the night of sin p27 Michelangelo Buonarroti.. attention of the Medici.. His philosophical oulook was influenced by Neoplatonism and his religious viewpoint by Savonarola.. increasing disenchanted with Renaissance values and, toward the end of his life, imbued his art with a mystical, almost medieval Christianity p34 Since the Benin sculptors used relatively permanent media, such as bronze (cast by the cire_perdue method) and ivory, some sculptures date back to the 15th century, making Benin the only place in sub-Sharan Africa where one can trace the stylistic and iconographic development of art through several centuries.. subject if Benin art was almost exclusively the king himself p37 water-soluble glue (gum arabic).. water color.. tempera technique was standard for small painting in Europewell into the Renaissance period. The binding agent here was traditionally one of the standard emulsions (a solution of watery and oily constituents): the yolk or the white of the egg, or casein derived from milk. The usual ground for the temera painting was a carefully smoothed layer of gesso (glue and white plaster).. could not greely be moved around; transitions of tone were necessarily built up of thousands of tiny, but separate, brush strokes.. oil technique uses as a binder a natural drying oil such as linseed oil or one of various nut oils. In the fully developed technique the support was usually a linen canvas with a ground of white lead in oil. This ground was nonabsorbent. The oil paint was pasty.. remained workable on the canvas for 24 to 72 hours.. could be worked in thick, pasty layers (impasto) and blended p38 fresco the pigment is mixed only with water before it is brushed onto the fresh, wet plaster p40 Raffaello Sanzio.. 1504-08 Raphael worked in Florence, where he was greatly influenced by Leonardo and Michelangelo. In 1508 he was called to Rome by Julius II to decoratethe Camera della Segnatura p42 Peter Bruegel [purgatorial clutter].. dominance of the Netherlands by Catholic Spain, and the Inquisition imposed by Philip II p43 Domenikos Theotokopoulos, known as El Greco.. born in Crete near Candia and was first trained in the late medieal Byzantine [subdimensional] style [inspired Cubism].. Catholic Counter Reformation movement and of the thought and power of the Jesuit Order p44 Rembrandt van Rijn [dark over light paint to depict glow].. portrait painter.. 1634 he married Saskia.. deat in 1642.. grew more introspective, his style became more intimate and personal.. liberation of Holland from Spanish rule, the consequent emergence of a Dutch Protestantism and the expansion of Dutch mercantilism p46 strongly flecked technique and highly random composition now called impressionism p65 Linear perspective is a mathematical system for representing on a flat surface the apparent dimunition of objects as they recede from the observer. Though the phenomenon was been obesrves and recorde din ancient times, the Italian artists of the Early Renaissance were the first to forumalte the mathematical system of construction that would assure the precise application of the broad principle #@# Theol Icon Ouspensky trGythiel 1978 svots.edu 0-88141-124-8 p24 The church can be divided into three parts (the sanctuary, the nave and the narthex), according to the plan of the tabernacle of Moses and the temple of Solomon.. church faces east.. sunrise: Christ is glorified as "the Orient from on high" p38 existence of frescoes in the catacombs from the first century on is well known, namely in places of assembly and worship, and where the clergy were buried (for example, in the catacomb of Callistus) p46 explanations of St John of Damascus [vs iconoclast]. If, in the Old Testament, the direct revelation of God was manifest only by the word, in the New Testament it is made manifest both by word and by image. The Invisible became visible p63 The oldest historical evidence we have about the icons painted by St Luke dates back to the sixth century. It is attributed to Theodore, calle "the Lector," a Byzantine historian in the first half of the century (around 530) and a reader in the church of St Sophia in Constantinople. Theodore speaks of an icon of the Virgin Hodigitria sent to COnstantinople in the year 450, which was attributed to St Luke. It was sent from Jerusalem by the Empress Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Theodosius II, to her sister, Pulcheria p130 "Divinity is equally present in an image of the cross and in other divine objects," St Theodore the Studite says, "not by virtue of identity of nature, for these objects are not the flesh of God, but by virtue of their relative participation in divinity, for they participate in the grace and the honor" [Antirheicus I 10 PG 99:340] p173 cannot represent this holiness, which we do not see; it cannot be portrayed by word, by image, or by any human means. In the icon, it can only be portrayed with the help of forms, colors, and symbolical lines, by an artistic language established by the Church and characterized by strict historical realism p420 In the eighteenth century, as in the seventeenth, the latinization of the Orthodox world continued. p474 Such art, introduced into Orthodoxy, was the outcome of spiritual decay, not the result of any change in doctrine. As compared to the doctrine, it remained a borrowed element, a foreign body with no link to the Tradition, and this to the spiritual inheritance of the historic Church [Fotis Kontoglu 1896-1965 iconography revival] p492 different artisitic language, that of the Church. This "distortion" is natural, or rather indispensable to express the content of the icon p508 Thus all iconoclasm in any form, open or secret, even pious, contributes to "disincarnate" the Incarnation, to undermine the economy of the Holy Spirit in the world, to destroy the Church #@# Music W Civ P H Lang (Columbia) Norton 1997 1941 0-393-04074-7 p10 The listeners of antiquity followed a nonpolyphonic musical melody with an intensity unknown to us.. Greeks were capable of enjoying the slight and delicate inflections of a melodic line; their ears were keen enough to apprehend subtleties of intonation and color which we, with our harmonically and polyphonically trained ears, cannot perceive p19 Timotheus of Miletus (c446-357). His dithyrambs and nomes were redundant and prolix; his light and pleasant melodies were designed to thaw out the frozen majesty of the older art.. Plato and Aritotle saw in his music a mischievous offense, an uncalled-for infringement.. Aristophanes carried on a stinging crusade against the new tendency in music, because it adorned with flourishes the grave majestic line of the old music p20 Oxyehynchus papyrus.. transition period from the music of antique Greece to that of Christian Greece. The piece still shows the characteristics of classical music intact.. confirms the hypothesis that the original Hebrew songs as sung by the early Christians were displaced by examples of the highest type of antique musical practice soon after early Christendom came into contact with Greek civilization p22 Eastern Roman Empire, however, we see that the main provinces, and especially the capital itself, suffered relatively little from the ravages of continuous warfare, and that, on the contrary, the developed a spiritual and artisitic art of the highest order p23 The representatives of Byzantine musicology - Suidad (tenth century), Michael Osellus (eleventh century), Bryennius (twelfth century), and Pachymeres (thirteenth century) - do cast some furtive glances toward the music of their own time, but their main activity is reserved for the rediscovery of ancient musical doctrine p25 Byzantine music never encouraged the growth of instrumental music.. The Greeks had - as we have seen - two main instruments, the aulos and the lyre, while the Byzantines alloted the limited use they had for instruments to only one, the organ, which figured not in their church music, but only in what we have called court music. Cithara and aulos, which accompanies the entire musical production of Hellenistic Greece, diappeared with the annihilation by the Laodicean Concil of the theatre, pantomime, and virtuoso music. Like the aulos, the organ is of Oriental extraction.. no longer any metron, or measuring the length of syllables; their number had to be counted p29 characteristic feature of Byzantine singing is the prolongation of the last note of a phrase.. monodic character of ancient Greek music, whether solo or choric. Byzantine music, in its unadulterated form, is mainly monodic, exceot that the choir occasionally holds what may be termed an accompanying tone, This method of singing prevails up to this day in those domains of the Eastern Church untouched by Western music. Byzantine music notation evolved independent of the notation of classical Greece and should be considered one of the great and truly original achievements of Byzantine civilization.. Byzantines used signs that attempted to give a graphic indication of the design and progress of the melody, without, however, giving the exact pitch p40 dualism expressed in these lines quoted from St Augustine. On the one hand, this powerful influence must be harnessed and utilized for worthy purposes; on the other hand, its sensual, carnal influence must be combated p44 St Basil used to go around and visit several churches on one night to hear the faithful sing Psalms, anf Gregory Nazianzen departed from Constantinople with regret at leaving behind the Psalm singing of the congregation p45 Justin, the widely traveled Christian philosopher (c150), described the order of the early Mass: readings from the Old and New Testaments were followed by a sermon by the "leader," offering of bread and wine, prayer of the faithful, the "kiss of peace," eucharistic (thanksgiving) prayer, and last of all, communion.. somewhat later type of th liturgy of the Mass is to be found in the Apostolic Constitutions, VIII, 5-15 p49 hymns became popular in other countries, although several synods were still opposed to them and preferred Biblical texts.. at the end of the third century the Romans abandoned the Greek liturgical language in favor of their own Latin p50 several subspecies of liturgies such as the Western-Syriac, with its important center in Jerusalem; the Egyptian, with its center in Alexandria; the Byzantine with Constantinople as its main center. The East-Syriac liturgy, popular in the extensive outlying territories, retained the Syriac language. The first large territory was Roman, but Roman liturgy was also employed in North Africa, with Carthage as its center. Large parts of lower Otaly (Magna Graecia), which, being early colonized by the Greeks, belonged to the Hellenistic circle of tradition and civilization, retained the Greek liturgy in itsoriginal form as it was taken from Jerusalem. Out of regard for the Italo-Greeks even Rome made some use of the Greek liturgy p51 Christian writers repeatedly mention the prevalence of ecstasy; Tertullian knows of songs which were the products of such a mental state and holds up these improvisations as characteristic of Christian prayer and music.. ofice of the cantor the Christian Church took over an old synagogal institution, and also in many cases probably employed musicians who had received their education in Jewish musical practice p53 Rule of St Benedict, but the Rules of St Paul and St Stephen also contain numerous paassages concerning the music of the Church. They require that the psalmody be executed by the choir "as if it were one voice; none of the singers should sing faster or louder than the others." Pope Gregory assured the final establishment of the schola_cantorum by setting aside two buildings near the Lateran.. Musical instruments were just as much feared as the pleasing tunes which heretics used with such astonishing success in their propaganda p56 Neo-Pythagorean number-symbolism.. four elements, four general directions, four seasons, four virtues, four kinds of beings (angels, demons, animated creatures, plants). Number seven is the source of the various sorts of tones, that is, the harmony of the seven planets, of which the seven strings of the lyre are the earthly image. The number eight, which is the double of four, represents all the harmonies p62 Gregory deserves the epithet of "the Great" as far as his work in practical organization.. Mysticism, superstition, and the love of the wonders take the place of logical demonstrations. He was also responsible for the neglect of Biblical research, which interested the christians of the fifth and sixth centuries to such a great extent, substituting forced allegorical explanations, and attaching to the Biblical stories sweeping moral conclusions alternating with grotesque tales of wonder p66 Irish Church assumed the nature of a missionary church and exerted considerable influence, in music as in other fields, on the Frankish, and even the northern Italian countries p67 Charlemagne himself was an enthusiastic lover of church music.. emperor's zeal in extablishing a true Gregorian practice caused the burning of all books of Ambrosian ritual to safeguard the unity of song and liturgy p71 original pre-Gregorian church song could not be entirely eradicated, and the curious fact remains that a large liturgical domain, comprising Gaul, western Germany, and parts of England, still showed elements of Byzantine origin sung in Greek.. Romantic nations continued to cultivate melodic curves which followed a consecutive, stepwise motion, while the Germanic plain-song dialect favored larger intervals, especially the third p76 The opposition of the musical instincts of faraway Franks and Gauls engendered another direct cause for the disintegration of Gregorian music, the tropes which speedily affected all the music of the Ordinary of the Mass. In place of the simple original melodies grew songs of an elaborate character, and even the new melodies were further elaborated by tropes.. Gregorian chant became the rather monotonous plain chant with organ accompaniment which reigned until the Benedictines of the Congregation of France, led by Gueranger, Pothier, and Mocquereau, started a genuine revival of Gregorian traditions p77 The medieval man heard in the psalmody, in the numerous vocalizations and jubilations of the alleluia, in the finely wrought melodic line and the truly basilicalike solidity of the cantus_planus, things we cannot evoke today for all this is a resurrected art.. beauty of Gregorian chant requires study and familiarization p80 The tradition of the antique citharoedia did not disappear with the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire. The numerous decrees and canons issued by various councils prohibiting profane cithara playing attest to its popularity. The cithara survived in western Europe far into the Middle Ages, partly because its construction was so similar to the traditional instrument of the Celtic bards. The ancient Celtic lyre, very popular in the early Middle Ages, became one of the chief musical instruments in the Carolignian period under the name of rotta, which was the Middle High German euivalent for the original Irish cot or cruit and the Welsh crwth p85 notation originated in the Orient, as we have seen to be the case, is evident from its name, neuma.. Isidore of Seville, the great polyhistor, appears to be ignorant of any means by which music can be preserved for posterity.. Guido's [d'arezzio] introduction of a system of four lines and four spaces (spatia) netween the lines, marked by clefs, put an end to all ambiguity.. first syllables of six lines of an ancient Sapphic hymn addresses to St John the Baptist.. whole tone between ut-re [later do-re], re-mi, fa-sol, sol-la, while that between mi and fa was a half tone p90 attempt to bring home to the unlettered people the reality of the chief events connected with the Christian religion was the point of departure for the medieval stage.. Nativity and Resurrection. The drama was short, reduced to its essentials, a simple paraphrase of the sacred text, carried out in a solemn and grave performance. Personal initiative soon claimed a larger place in the liturgic drama. The actors took liberties with sacred texts, reserved the Latin for the versicles, the responds, and the lessons, and carried on the dialogues in the vernacular.. plays had been enacted in front of the altar by priests and clerks, but with the development of the vernacular element the presentation was transfered from the altar to the portal of the church, and the place of clergymen was taken by laymen who soon formed confraternities of actors p91 entirely musical character of the liturgic plays is demonstrated by the fact that a great number of the manuscripts contain the music in notation p93 facial expression, gestures, and accentuations.. depict the mental state.. ancient libretti.. demanded explicitly that the lector off the Epistles, who usually took the role of Jesus, must have a soft voice, whereas the cleric who impersonated Judas must have a sharp and disagreeable voice. The voices of the angels were expected to be sweet, the women's voices were to have a "humble" quality.. "lamento aria" of Mary Magdalen, which goes back to the fifthe century.. principal aspect is that of the penitent.. very core of musical drama p104 One may come to the conclusion that troubadour art came from two principal sources: from music and thought of the Christian world, as expressed in sequences, tropes, hymns, and litanies, and from the secular songs pf roving poets such as goliards p113 principal role in the development of Italian poetry was played by St Francis and his disciples.. Giovani Bernardone.. religious poetry, the laude, usualy in the vernacular.. greatest merit of laude poetry consisted in its being the sole carrier of folk song and its spirit. Behind its feverish and hysterical exaggerations there emerges a sincere, warm humanity that has nothing of the stilted formality of courtly art p119 Under the protective power of the Hohenstaufen dynasty people felt free to express themselves about the Church, the pope, and the clergy, and they began to make a distinction between papacy and Christianity.. lyric genius whose importance in German art is comparable only to that of Goethe. Folk song, artistic minnesong, poetry, and polemic were all united in the sensitive soul of Walther von der Vogelweide (c1170-1230), who gave the words to everything that animated his time, wandering from court to court and singing in Bavarian dialect his poems set to music of his own composition. He stood removed from the learned soirit of the monasteries, the Latin poetry of the goliards, and the philosophy of the universities; he lived undisturbed and serene in the culture of his class p127 The Church insisted on its own songs, the Gregorian melodies had to be preserved intact; any other music, if there was to be more than one voice, was permitted inly in addition to the existing consecrated melodies. The original polyphonic incentive of the people slowly acquiesced and thus adapted itself too the musical art which was forced upon them p132 A typical Gothic trait is the repeated indenting of the linear sequence by reopening a completed action and starting it again in_medias_res.. old principle of the trope is revived here; while the tenor part holds the liturgic word (the mot) and music as cantus firmus, the contrapuntal parts declaim a paraphrase. Soon the troped accompanying parts become so imposing that they forced changes in the Gregorian cantus firmus.. motetus, designated in the begining the upper contrapuntal voice, which was evolving above and against the lower part, which "held on" (tenor, from the Latin teneo) to the mot; the third voice was called triplum, whence is derived our modern treble p171 new national humanism of Italy, breaking the hegemony of Franch culture, which heretofore had led the way, established anew the old Roman attitude toward "barbarians," the revised epithet being applied to the French and Germanic nations, to whose invasion the temporary decline of Italian culture, now restored, was credited p183 Italian and English influences softened the stern and strictly architectural qualities of the old motet, and the same melodiousness which appeared in the polyphonic song permeated the new versions.. between church music and courtly musical art. The motet belonged to neither.. Gothic desire for judiciously planned architecture was retained to a certain degree, resulting in a remarkably balanced form. The renewed interest in use of the cantus firmus necessitated the development of a real fundamental bass part, which was assumed by the so-called contratenor, lying underneath the tenor part p194 sober northerner, already fascinated by the majestic art of Obrecht, forgot the mystical polyphonic flow of his forebears to apply all his great technical wealth to the sublime, clear, well-defined and articulated, emotionally profound, and varied music which became the quintessence of Renaissance musical art. Josquin was the creator of the new Mass, the new motet, an the new chanson, and it was in these works that we see the approach of the a_capella ideal.. polyphonic style of their elders was their natural idiom, with which they were not willing to part; yet they could not ignore the song poetry, the well-shaped, rhythmical melodies that came streaming from Italy. They tried to stem the uncontrolled flow of music by rational means, such as articulation, symmetry, and motivic logic, and these innovations, together with a new relationship between text and music, were to determine the style of the generation that came on the scene with the birth of the new century p208 His favorite composer was Josquin Despres, whom he characterized as "master of the notes; others are mastered by them." This observation betrays again a keen musical sense and a sure judgement of art; Luther recognized in Josquin the sovereign genius to whom the subtleties of counterpoint were only a means of expression.. avoided the straits of experimentation, but also the puritanic primitiveness of Calvin, who banished even the simple accompaniment of hymns p220 If carried out according to older interpretations, the Tridentine reform would have affected adversely church music, which was not only a prodigious treasure of sacred art, but an art permeated by that humanistic spirit which characterized the liturgic reform. The freely flowing espressive polyphony, reacting to the most subtle rhythmical changes with a facility which our modern notation is not even capable of indicating, represented the ideal of church music. With the works of de Monte, Lassus, and Palestrina, vocal polyphony reached its greatest height, a perfect equilibrium between counterpoint and harmony, a style in which the individual parts move about in perfect freedom though always jealously obesrving the rights of harmony p299 In the courts of the Medici, the Gonzaga, the Sforza, the Este, as well as in the brilliant courts of such art-loving popes as Julius II and Leo X, music was an inalienable part of daily life.. singing in the homes, in the fields, in the churches.. no one seemed to find anything objectionable in music, although painters and poets were ridiculed in countless pamphlets. The polemical works were restricted to the scholars who wages the usual battle for the sanctity of old laws and customs, and to the adherents of Calvin who feared the seductive charm of music, attributed to it ever since the times of Orpheus p301 monkish theology of the early Middle Ages belittled women and considered them the most pliable tool in the hand of Satan. Knightly romansticism of the following era elevated womanhood to a sphere where it almost ceased to be a part of earthly life. It was left to the Renaissance to reinstate woman in human society and endow her with that ideal of beauty which the ancients saw in her p322 shadow of an overwhelming tragedy covers his works. Michelangelo's figures writhe, groan, and sigh. The desire to gain the transcendental spiritual regions.. every column suffers, every pillar groans under the heavy unbearable pressure. The individual forms are now subordinated to the form of the whole as servants, and beauty is no longer exoressed in mild and well-tuned harmonies, but in the eruptive power uprooted by passions... these dynamic qualities led to their most violent expression in the German baroque.. Greek painter who became the embodiment of the vey soul of baroque Spain, El Greco, created the most convincing symbols of this visionary mood. His often singularly distorted, over life-sized figures seem to come from another world. An almost expressionistic trait - the ignoring of the phenomena of reality - is discernible in them p328 We have already mentioned Loyola's Spiritual_Excercises, designed primarily to educate the members of the order and the Catholic aristocracy. We have pointed out the remarkably ptactical and psychological technique employed in the Excercises to inspire and excite emotion and understanding wherever these forces could be directed toward religious ends p341 Monteverdi has often been likened by modern writers to Wagner, but, if such analogies are at all possible, there seems to be a more intimate kinship between the musician and Michelangelo. They are kinsfolk in their titanic struggle with matter and form, in their ceaseless fight for the deliverance of human powers, in their tragical decrying of the aimlessness of the final aims of human life p343 Jesuits, recognizing almost immediately the great possibilities inherent in the new style, proved to be not only the sponsors of the dramma_recitativo, but pressed their seminaries and colleges into the service of the new musical theater. Many of the new composers were clerics and members of the papal choir p364 In our day "concert" may mean a recital.. earler centuries the term was synonymous with ensemble playing - "consort" in England; but - and this is what interests us particularly - in the seventeenth century it stood for a principle of styl, and as a principle it means not the co-operation but the opposition, the rivalry, the pitting against each other of musical bodies. Our finding of a new principle in the concerted music of the baroque period may be disputed, because from the echo of lakes and mountains, from the alternating choruses of Greek tragedy to the antiphons and responsoria of Gregorian music, and wherever tow people are singing or playing together, the concertante element is present. It was the baroque spirit, however, which, with its love of virtuosity, display, and ornamentation, caused this elemental principle to become the dominating factor in its music. Contrary to our modern purely instrumental usage, the concerted style took its flight from vocal music. The antiphonal multiple choirs of the Venetians gave the first impetus to its development p441 The Pythagorean interval doctrines of medieval theorists, making the third into a dissonance, did not prevent the gradual rise of a new conception of consonance based precisely on the proscribed third, and when Zarlino offered his harmonic system he only codified and equipped with a scientific apparatus a doctrine long in the universal use p473 Pietism, then, carried the disintegration to its completion, and so it happened that when the mature Bach arrived with his works calling for the most profound experience of Christian faith experienced in music, he stood alone, the belated messanger of a Protestantism which was no longer a living force. The musical Mass was still retained by the Protestants, but only the Kyrie and Gloria were set to music; such a Mass in the Lutheran service was called missa_brevis. The gigantic B minor Mass of Bach was originally a Lutheran missa_brevis, the master adding the remaining parts later. As the Mass itself was neither an original nor a sanctioned part of the liturgy in the Reformed Church pp489-90 second half of the seventeenth century numerous Bahs occupied almost all te musical positions in Weimar, Erfurt, and Eisenach, and if one of them resigned or died his place was immediately taken by a cousin or uncle.. Johann Sebastian was born in 1685. Having lost his parents at an early age, th boy's education was entrusted to an older brother, Johann Christoph (1671-1721), a pupil of Pachelbel p493 That he was conservative can be seen from the deliberations that accompanied the selection of a successor to Cantor Kuhnau. The progressive-minded burghers and municipal authorities had intended to fill the vacancy with one of the chief representatives of the new art, and it was only after their first and second choices, Telemann and Graupner, identified with the modern Italian style, were found to be not available, that they considered Bach p494 The music-lover is awe struck when entering the great palaces of his works, the plan na d design of which he can barely divine. He feels himself lost, because while he admires the geometric marvels of the severe architecture, he finds his whole being invaded by a tender poetry which emanates from the meticulously elaborated ornaments of the towering structures. But when he turns his attention to the source of this poetry he sees the walls and columns of an architecture whose order and logic seem to be inalterably constant. The critic is humbled by the unlimited resources and knowledge of the metire and searches feverishly for the outles through which pour broad stream of faith, longing, and exaltation. But he too is misled by the dual unity of absolute mathematics and absolute poetry p495 Bach's art rests in the traditions of the German Reformation, which reached its highest manifestation in him, in the midst of the era of the Englightenment. But it is not only this great musician's art which belongs to earlier times: his whole personality is much nearer to the man of the sventeenth century, the earnest German Protestant, unflinchingly faithful to the religion which governed his whole life p522 Handel, in the oratorio, gave England a national substitute for the opera. This oratorio was not humble church music, but entertainment of the musico-dramatic kind, though on a higher moral plane, close to and befitting English tatse. Handel glorified the rise of the free people of England in his oratorios. The people of Israel became the prototype for the English nation, the chosen people of God reincarnated in Christendom, and magnificent Psalms of thanksgiving and marches of victory in imperial baroque splendor proclaimed the grandiose consciousness of England's world-conquering power p534 slogan advocating a return to nature was in everyone's mouth, and everyone was seriously concerned in contrubiting to this end.The baroque had merely distorted nature whan it compelled trees to grow in prearranged shapes and when it regulated the flow and fall of water; the rococo went further, it created a nature-world of its own with lakes, little reed-covered huts, flocks of sheep, and stacks of hay.. became the antithesis of the grandiose pictorial-architectural character of the full baroque p636 Mozart did not imitate anyone or anything; the external appearance of music was but a means of expression to him, never technique. Technique and form are meaningless without content; his world of expression is inseperable from his form, and this is the secret of the perfection and unity of his music.. Mozart never created really new forms but by regarding the existing styles not as unities but as phenomena which contribute toward a general style, he created a universal all-inclusive style which stood above all subspecies p660 Don Giovanni is perhaps more overwhelming and the Magic Flute more profound, but Mozart's love of life fetes its most hamonious exuberance in The Marriage of Figaro (1786). Here he abandons himself without reserve to the whirl of life. There is no supreme hero in this opera to dictate the tempo of life. Don Giovanni sets the surrounding world to an intoxicating dance but the characters in Figaro are made to dance by the world in which they live. All the personalities of the opera fight and love on an equal footing. Each is a sculptured individual, yet there is a common resemblance - their common humanity. There is no sharp social difference to separate them, as in Cosi Fan Tutte, and their symmetry is not based on contrasts, as in the Magic Flute; they are placed on the stage as life would have thrown them there, the one central power around which they rally being "almighty love that creates and preserves everything" p669 The native opera flourished, then, with unabated vigor, yet in a few years the Italian regained every foot of territory ceded. The new Italian opera troupe wa led by Antonio Salieri (1750-1825), a discovery whome Gassmann brought back from Venice to Vienna, where he enjoyed a great reputation until the end of his life. An intriguer like his seventeenth-century compatriot Lully, this able musician was even accused of poisoning Mozart, a fact that can be as little substantiated as Lully's allegend murder of Cambert. There can be no question, however, of Salieri's malevolent interference witht he success of his Austrian colleagues. His fine musicianship told him to concentrate his malice on Mozart, whose lamentable fate was due in no small degree to the Italian's machinations. Arriving in Vienna at the time of the short-lived supremacy of the German comic opera, he lost no time composing a Singspiel, The Cimneysweep (1781), but on the whole the Viennese opera remained a minor adventure in the works of rhis universally admired musician, who was considered not only the leader of the resurrected Italian opera in Vienna, but the lineal successor of Gluck in the field of serene music drama p688 Justus Falckner, the first German minister ordained in America, complained that while the uncivilized Indians showed a distinct liking for music, the "melancholy, saturnine, stingy Quaker spirit" refused to be won over p737 Romanticism did not know classic measure and poise. The object of its artistic efforts was not man in his ideal isolation, for it always saw man in his relationship to infinite nature, to infinite space, with man as the center of sensation, as the focal point of all sentiment. Everything was animated by this relationship, and through it received life and meaning. Nature became revelation, the expression of human experience; thus romanticism abandoned itself to nature and lived wedded to it. Holderlin and Novalis, Byron and Shelley, Shubert and Weber, all sang and thought with nature, unlike the men of the Enlightenment, who loved in nature the idyllic only. But the romanticism was filled with nature, in which he immersed himself, feeling himself mystically, pantheistically one and the same with it p747 While the longing of a Chopin or Schumann is indescribable, Schubert experiences the absolute, the finished, the unsurpassable. In him the German song reached its pinnacle. There was, however, another Schubert, the composer of incomparable instrumental music, and this romanticist gave us the greatest, the richest post-Beethovenian symphonies, written with the sure hand of the classic symphonist although undeniably saturated with romantic elements. Such breadth, such mastery of symphonic thought, was with this exception denied to the romanticists, and only one composer in the whole succeeding period, Brahms, could match it p750 The mood that possessed Germany in the era of the Strum und Drang provided the atmosphere for the young Goethe and the young Schiller.. In every note and every word of Beethoven, from the time he first became articulate, this erect stature and proud majesty id soul spoke with convincing power to which all opposition in the matter with which he dealt must succumb; he formed it after his will and filled it with the contents of his soul. Thus was born a peculiar music, music that was the incarnation of strength and integrity p817 even when the romantic symphonist embarked on thematic development proper, he was usually satisfied with playing with the contours of the idea.. most conspicuous shortcoming in the romantic sonata and symphony is the lack of unity and cohesion. At certain points the symphony yawns and stagnates, and the best interpretation cannot prevent the sensation of broken continuity. Instead of offering a conflict, the dualistic sonata themes are merely antithetic, with the lyric second theme dominating, robbing the development section of its dramatic role p911 masterly arrangement of motives, a logic of harmonic and tonal relationship which made Verdi the true and worthy successor of the great classic opera composers and a formidable rival of Richard Wagner. The arrangement of motives should not be taken in the Wagnerian sence, for Verdi does not apply a system of leitmotives; he uses only certain recurring themes as Cherubini and Beethoven.. seventy-three-year-old composer broke his silence with Otello (1887), a work which bears the stamp of genius at its pinnacle. Beginning with the opening "storm chorus," a scene of such elemental power as modern opera never knew before or after, to the indescribably sad last song of Desdemona and the tragic end of Othello, this score is one throbbing story of the catastrophe of a great love. The old form of the opera, so contemptuously buried by Wagner and his apologists, returns here raised to undreamed heights. And it presents us with a miracle: another Othello, not Shakespeare's, but one that is its equal; drama and opera, independent entities, and each the peak of its species p944 restricted to the output of the era which we call romantic. This Russian music which we hear in the concert halls and opera houses recalls the wars of certain Oriental nations which fight their national battles with arms made in European factories, and Tsaikovsky reminds us of one of those Oriental captains who study European tactics throughout their lives #@# Wm Ted deBary E Asian Civ Harvard1988 0-674-22405-1 p1 conceptions of reverence, filiality, kingly virtue, propriety in the performance of ritual p5 Confucius appeals not only to noblesse oblige but to the sense of self-respect p8 kinship system, rather than through impersonal, bureaucratic procedures. It is a decentralized enfeoffment system, but in contrast to Western or Japanese "feudalism" it has a clear center. One cannot call it pluralistic or polycentric, because Mencius, like most thinkers of his day, assumes that the essential problem is how to reconstitute human society around a true center. Nevertheless he is equally concerned about the overconcentration of power p13 Hsun Tzu's concept of human freedom is to bing about such an ordering of desires and the mans of their satisfaction that the two are commensurate p19 amalgam of Confucian theory and Legalist practice.. oscillating between the pole of Tung Chung-shu's view of moderate reformism, with minimal state involvement in th economy, and th eopposite pole of Wang Mang's more radical interventions.. New Deal.. ever-normal granary.. literal translation from the Chinese model he adopted [Derk Bodde "Henry Wallace and the Ever-Normal Granary" Far Eastern Quarterly 5 8.1946 411-26].. professed humane purposes of a reformist state seeking to achieve economic balance ans price stability.. institutions of the Han state, which was impressive in its control of a populous and productive economy p22 Buddha arrived at his own diagnosis, that life inherently involves suffering and that suffering arises from desire or selfish craving p23 detachment, serenity of mind, calm resolution, courage, lofty aspiration, wisdom, compassion p31 Shotoku frankly confronts the contradiction between Confucian faith in human intelligence and virtue and, influenced by a measure of Buddhist skepticism.. subordinate their selfish interests and private views to the public good through a process of discussion.. "Matters should not be decided by one person alone" p33 "need of pulic discussions and the people's cooperation is due to the influences of the Taoist yin-yang reciprocal circulation principle, the Confucian principle of the Mean, and the Buddhist democratic equality" p53 Chu asserted three guiding principles of education.. "manifest bright virtue".. innate moral nature.. "renew the people".. "reform in the old".. "resting in the highest good".. proper mean p85 Chinese had persistently failed to achieve the system of universal [n just bur elite] schooling that the great Neo-Confucians, especially Chu Hsi, had insisted was the sine qua non of winning the minds and hearts of the people (originally, away from Buddhism and religious Taoism) p112 In fact secular education (as distinct from training for the religious life) was largely a Neo-confucian product, and even when the Buddhist engaged in it, whether for lay or clerical purposes, the content of such instruction was generally Confucian.. returning to the world with their higher religious wisdom, they readily adapted it to, and in effect largely accepted, the prevailing culture and pattern of lay life. THus their reaffirmation of concern for the world often took the form of showing how they accepted and promoted Confucian norms p114 chief resistance to Buddhism arose from the family on the ground that Buddhism was, allegedly, incompatible with Confucian family values.. self-discipline, group loyalty, frugality, self-denial and obedience #@# Solomon, Chinese Negotiating Behavior 1-878379-86-0 p174 The US negotiator should also be aware of the Chinese [ditto Japanese] tendency to wait until the very last minute to conclude an agreement on the expectation that a counterpart's interest in concluding a deal will lead him or her to compromise when faced with an imminent deadline #@# Arayama & Mourdoukoutas China Against Herself 1999 1-56720-245-4 p74 In Structuring for Success in China, and reported in ASIAWEEK [Shanor 95 p76, Cn Tdy] and ironic finding given China's immense population size: "This is the irony: in the world's most populous nation, where an abundance of inexpensive labor is one of the real competitive avdantages, the one human resource in greatest demand is also in least supply. There simply are not enough qualified managers, sales people, marketers, quality control personnel, and to a lesser degree, engineers and technicians" p115 price destruction and elimination of market rents would deprive capitalism of the resources and incentives to continue reproducing itself..To avoid the precipitation of such price destruction, China has a second option: to reform her economy in ways that will release the inherent abilities and capabilities of her people, so that they can pursue their own inventions and innovations #@# Jaspers Philos&World 1963 Regnery 0-89526-757-8 p126 origin of the world is conceived along the lines of events in the world, of living, of material, intellectual, logical processes.. one thing in common: their proponents seem to know what happened. They operate with forces, gods, substances, categories, whose own source is not further inquired into.. creation from nothingness.. time itself has only been created along with everything else p129 Constructions of mathematical possibilities are as speculatie and deceptive as the old, conceptual ones of metaphysics, and equally tempting p136 whether or not there is immortality.. Simple-mindedness and the most learned scholarship, cringing fear, blissful expectancy, and calm - all of them are equal in their factual ignorance p139 "Death, the brother of Sleep," remains a symbol. Without concepts, we finite creatures feel as in a bottomless void.. Socrates unfolds his images from the assurance of immortality and calls it "a fully justified faith worthy that we venture to devote ouselves to it. For the venture is beautiful, and peace of mind demands such ideas, which work like magic spells; this is why I tarry with this imagined portrayal." p142 People of other faiths were called heathens.. You do not resist violence. Martyrdom is truth p143 They sought to find Christian elements in the basic forms of the Chinese religion, so as to preache their own in Chinese garb - as it were to found a Chinese Christianity, just as there had once [?] been a Hellenistic one. The policy-makers of the Vatican blocked this way and put a stop to the creative Jesuit mission. But in the course of it the Jesuits had accomplished much in China, being the first to explore this religious reality at the source and to study the texts of its sacred books p144 These Biblically based religions include not only the Christian ones and the Jewish one, but Islam as well. The spirit of exclusiveness gives them all a common state of mind p145 Chinese religious world to a department store on which the individual was offered all sorts of religious possibilites.. Buddhist bonzes, to Taoist wizards, or to Confucian mandarins.. Similar conditions prevailed in the centuries of late Antiquity, when so many religions ment on the soil of the Roman Empire p147 But Luther, in his treatise "On the Jews and their Lies,".. "synagogues be set afire.. driven them out of the country".. What Hitler has done, Luther had counseled - except for the direct killing in gas chambers p148 A sense of superiority makes it sem not really worth our while to convert the foreigner to our truth, since his inferiority will not permit him to understand it anyway p296 National Socialism meant the most radical break in human communication; it also meant that man ceased to be himself. It became clear that the rupture of communication in favor od self-willed violence will always pose a threat to personal existence and the real danger of losing ourselves. Philosophizing, on the other hand, means that we work on the conditions that may make universal communcation possible p299 conservative liberalism and oppositionism of both families, my mother's as well as my father's, and their inclination to achieve democracy by way of aristocracy #@# Dilworth, Philosophy in World Perspective, Yale, 1989, ad_passitum [Numbers in brackets might be useful in multidimensional scaling] Philosophy Perspective Reality Method Principle Thales Objective[2] Substrative[2] Logistic[2] Creative[1] Anaximander Objective Substrative Agonistic[1] Comprehensive[2] Anaximenes Objective Substrative Logistic Elemental[3] Pythagoras Diaphanic[3] Substrative Dialectical[3] Comprehensive Parmenides Diaphanic Noumenal[3] Logistic Elemental Xenophanes Personal[1] Essential[4] Agonistic Reflexive[4] Heraclitus Diaphanic Substrative Agonistic Comprehensive Empedocles Diaphanic Substrative Agonistic Elemental Anaxagoras Objective Substrative Logistic Reflexive Sophists Personal Existential[1] Agonistic Creative Democritus Objective Substrative Logistic Elemental Plato Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Comprehensive Aristotle Disciplinary[4] Essential Synoptic[4] Reflexive Skeptics Objective Existential Agonistic Elemental Epicureans Objective Substrative Logistic Creative Stoics Objective Substrative Dialectical Reflexive Plotinus Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Elemental Old Testament Diaphanic Essential Dialectical Creative New Testament Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Creative Koran Diaphanic Noumenal Agonistic Creative Augustine Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Creative Mo Tzu Personal Substrative Logistic Comprehensive Confucius Diaphanic Essential Agonistic Comprehensive Mencius Diaphanic Essential Agonistic Elemental Hsun Tzu Objective Essential Agonistic Creative I Ching Diaphanic Essential Dialectical Comprehensive Tsou Yen Objective Essential Dialectical Comprehensive Tung Chung-shu Diaphanic Essential Dialectical Comprehensive Hinduism Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Elemental Buddhism Zen Diaphanic Existential Agonistic Elemental BuddhPureLand Diaphanic Noumenal Agonistic Elemental Bacon Objective Substrative Logistic Reflexive Descartes Personal Essential Logistic Reflexive Spinoza Objective Noumenal Logistic Reflexive Berkeley Diaphanic Existential Agonistic Creative Hume Objective Existential Logistic Elemental Kant Disciplinary Noumenal Synoptic Reflexive Pierce Objective Essentialist Synoptic Reflexive Husserl Disciplinary Essentialist Logistic Reflexive Fichte Disciplinary Noumenal Dialectical Reflexive Schelling Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Elemental Hegel Diaphanic Essentialist Dialectical Reflexive Marx Objective Substrative Dialectical Creative Schopenhauer Diaphanic Substrative Synoptic Elemental Kierkegaard Personal Noumenal Agonistic Creative Nietzsche Personal Substrative Agonistic Elemental Freud Objective Substrative Agonistic Elemental Derrida Objective Substrative Agonistic Creative Wittgenstein Objective Existential Agonistic Elemental Satre Personal Existential Dialectical Creative Merleau-Ponty Personal Existential Dialectical Creative Jaspers Diaphanic Existential Agonistic Creative Heidegger Diaphanic Essentialist Dialectical Creative Russell Objective Existential Logistic Elemental Bradley Disciplinary Existential Dialectical Comprehensive Whitehead Disciplinary Existential Dialectical Creative Bergson Diaphanic Substrative Dialectical Creative James Personal Existential Synoptic Creative Dewey Disciplinary Essetialist Synoptic Creative Royce Diaphanic Essentialist Dialectical Reflexive Santayana Objective Substrative Logistic Elemental #@# Massie, Land of Firebird, Touchstone, 1980 ISBN 0-671-46059-5 p56 By the 16th century and perhaps even earlier, the Russians had devised an efficient system of prefabricated houses far in advance of anything of the kind in Europe. It was almost an essential service, for Russian cities were constantly threatened by fire p59 visiting Greeks complained bitterly in their writings, saying that living among such hardy people was almost equivalent to suicide. Who but the Russians, they asked, could manage to stand for such long hours in church and deprive themselves of almost all food during the seven weeks of Lent? Englishmen found the custom of moving about in and out of church very disturbing; people, said one. "gaggle and cackle like geese" [This cocktail party atmosphere is perfect justification for pews] p64 In Russian, Ivan is not called "the Terrible," but something very different - Grozny [like Chechen capital].. "awesome" Ivan was an extraordinary tsar, and his reign of fifty-one years was the longest in Russian history. He inspired respect, fear and pity. He was complex, tortured and, in his later years, very probably insane p65-7 Although Ivan was Grand Prince, these regent boyars humiliated and tormented him.. unprincipled barbarity.. At thirteen, he suddenly asserted himself.. married a girl whom he had chosen from among the hundreds brought to Moscow for his inspection. Legend suggest he had already fallen.. Anastasia Zakharina-Romanova.. 1560, thirteen years after they were married, Anastasia herself died.. grief turned to rage and paranoia.. mad obsession that made him see traitors everywhere.. unusual memory and considerable literary ability.. first printing press brought to Russia p74 divorce on grounds of barrenness alone was not permited, the Patriarch of Jerusalem opposed the marriage of Ivan's father to his mother and laid down then a terrible curse.. came true.. argument with his beloved eldest son and heir.. Ivan jabbed at Boris [Gdunov], wounding him. Then enraged, he brought down the heavy end of his staff on his son's skull p78 peasants continued to flee the countryside in droves. Boris [Gdunov] was forced to institute the first laws tying them to the land, thus beininning the institution of serfdom p79 most representative Council of the Realm ever assembled, composed of boyars, clergy, merchants, Cossacks and free peasants, was called together to choose a new tsar. Their choice finally fell on the grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible, a descendant of Ivan's beloved Anastasia, Michael Romanov p80-1 At seventeen, he chose an old-fashioned and very religious girl, Maria Miloslavskaya, as his wife and was himself so devout that he became to be called "the Pious." So sincerely did he follow the precepts of the church that at the age of twenty, persuaded by the stern Patriarch of the time, it was he who offcially banned the skomorokhi and all amusements. (It was an action that Puritans of EUrope would have approved; this austere period in Russia occured during the same years that Cromwell was banning Maypoles and the theater in England.) Alexis' devotion to the church was so extreme that his English doctor, Samuel Collins, wrote of him: He never misses divine service. If he be well, he goes to it, if sick, it comes to him in his chamber. On fast days he frequents midnight prayers, standing four, five, six hours together, prostrating himself to the ground, sometimes a thousand times and on great festivals 1500. In great fast, he eats but three meals a week; for the rest a piece of brown bread and salt, a pickled mushroom or a cucumber, and drinks a cup of small beer. He eats fish but twice in the great Lent and observes it seven weeks altogether. In fine, no man is more observant of canonical hours than he is of fasts. We may reckon he fasts eight months in twelve.".. Tsar Michael had begun the rebuilding of the demolished Kremlin palaces, and under Alexis they reached their highest degree of luxury pp 90-2 Whie he was very young, Peter adopted the principle that was to rule his actions all his life: advancement should be based on merit and not on rank. (Until he felt he was sufficiently skilled, he served as a private in his own regiment.).. All his life, whenever he saw pieces of mechanical equipment, clockwork or navigational instruments, he could usually guess their purpose at a glance and take them apart and reassemble them.. during his lifetime he became skilled in fourteen specialties.. ferocious temper exploded he terrified everybody.. able to sober quickly.. "to break the bonds of inflexible customs of Muscovy..".. dreamed of retrieving in one bold stroke what he saw as two centuries lost to the Mongol domination.. after his [co-tzar] brother's death, he made the startling decision to go and see Europe.. In March 1697, led by Peter's Genevan General Lefort.. incognito as the "volunteer and seaman Peter Mikhailov".. demanded to see and examine everything p94 personally cut off the beards of all the boyars.. Barbers were posted at the gates of Moscow.. hid their shaven beards under their pillows.. relented a little and allowed men to pay a tax for the privelege of keeping their beards p96 reforms were heresy. The Anti-Christ was on the throne with smoke billowing out of his mouth.. 1709, at Poltava in the Ukraine, Peter deisively defeated the Swedes, previously considered invincible, and thus established Russia as a great European power p98-9 Peter was subject to epileptic-like convulsions.. from Lake Lagoda, the largest lake in Europe, the Neva River flows into the sea. At the mouth of the Gulf of Finland, it divides into four arms to form an extensive marshy delta.. Long before these lands had been part of the great domain of Lord Novgorod the Great but the Swedes had taken them.. seizing them from the Swedes in 1702.. an eagle soared over the head of the Tsar and landed on two birch trees that had been tied together to form an arch.. eagle became a pet.. Dutch name, Sankt Piterburkh.. climate is terrible. The river is frozen six months of the year. The islands of the delta are marshy. The city had to be built on wooden piles sunk into this shifting swampy ground p128-32 Peter was the grandson of Peter the Great and the grandnephew of Charles the XII of Sweden.. hated everything Russian and openly scorned the Orthodox Church.. young Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst, a seconf cousin of Peter's.. shrewdly realized that to be popular she needed to show an interest in the Russian language and the Orthodox Church.. splendid impression that the little foreign princess was so devoted to the Russian language that she had risked serious illness to master it.. rebaptized into the Orthodox Church with the more felicitous name of Catherine.. 1745.. smallpox.. disfigured.. Catherine saw him, she was horrified.. retreated into his past and acted more and more German. Catherine, with intelligent calculation, acted more and more Russian.. took two lovers. One was the chaming Polish aristocrat Stanislaw Poniatowski, whom many years later she made King of Poland. After Stanislaw left for Poland, Catherine took up with a dashing Guards officer named Grigory Orlov.. By the time Elizabeth died, Catherine was pregnant by Orlov.. Guards, led by the Orlovs, organized and executed the coup d'etat that proclaimed her Empress. Ten days later, Peter died in mysterious circumstances, after a wild night of drinking with a group of men, including Orlov's brother Alexei [Germans took Russia a millenium after taking the Vatican] p134 Catherine [II] was always a shrewd follower of trends and people rather than an imitator.. especially of France.. "..if she spoke French... because she wished Russia to forget that she was born in Germany" p146-8 One-fourth of the area of Europe was added to Russia - Poland, the Crimea and large parts of Turkey.. Grigory Potemkin. For seventeen years he ruled with her. He was her lover, her closest advisor, her foreign minister, her commander in chief and probably her husband.. chose all her subsequent lovers.. Potemkin remeained the real master of Russia p153 revenge of the twarted son was swift; on the day of his coronation he changed the law of succession. From henceforth only males could rule Russia.. Potemkin's body was exposed to the birds.. His passion for Prussian drilling continued p155 Only in Russia and in the United States in the 1820's and 1830's was this neoclassical style used for so many public buildings p157 Russian people's fierce defense of their land against Napoleon is one of the most magnificent examples of national courage in history. Contemporary Europeans were completely astonished. Used to the old Western stereotype of a Russia full of downtrodden peasants oppressed by an indolent aristocracy, they were surprised instead by a nation united in feeling in which both lord and peasant fought fiercely side by side with inspiring unity of purpose and patriotism p158 [Napoleon wrote] "such terrible tactics have no precedent in the history of civlization... To burn one's own cities.. A demon inspires these people! What savage determination! What a people! What a people!" p159 Russian Army arrived as triumphant liberators in Paris. On March 31, 1814, to the wild cheering of crowds, Alexander rode a white horse down the Champs Elysees, followed by his Cossacks and officers in white uniforms with flowing capes.. bistro comes from the word bystro.. "quickly" [explains why Frenchmen like Rancour-laFerriere and leDonne hate Russia so much!] p165 The great war against Napoleon had made Russian aristocrats deeply conscious of Western political ideas. Fighting side by side with simple Russians, they had become conscious of the rights of all people p166 far more German than Russian.. Nicholas II was only 1/256 Russian [leDonne claims tsars married Germans to avoid having to conquer fiefdoms to grant their new in-law] p175 Russians, continued Kohl [Johann G Kohl, Colburn, London, 1842], could be called "Mohammedans of Christianity" because the phrases "I can't tell, God knows" and "if it pleases God" that prefaced and ended their sentences p203 Alexander Sergeievich Pushkin was born in Moscow on May 28, 1799, into an old boyar family.. mother's side, his great-grandfather was an Abyssinian [Ethiopian Orthodox] prince named Ibrahim Hannibal, whom he later immortalized in an unfinished novel, The Negro of Peter the Great p210 Russians love song, poetry and poets with a passion shared only by the Irish p212 [Kohl, op_cit] "Ever since Peter the Great, Russia has been seized by such a prodigious enthusiasm for education as no nation in the world had ever exhibited" p255 Along the Nevsky Prospect were churches of every denomination.. religious tolerance of all Russians and the charity in religious belief prevalent in all ranks of society was noted with surprise in the accounts of many foreigners in the mid-19th century [quotes Kohl] p267 "The serf has more freedom of movement that the German peasant," commented Kohl in 1842 with some astonishment. p286-7 Germany and the Hapsburg dominions, serfdom was abolished by the Rovolution of 1848. Remnants of serfdom were not abolished in the United States until 1833, when the [Dutch] patroon system in New York State finally ended.. When Alexander II came to the throne, 37.7 percent of Russians were classified as serfs, according to the census of 1858. Of these, half were state peasants, whose only obligation was to pay a tax to the state and who could, with authorization from their community, leave to seek work freely in the cities [it is worth noting that in many cases in the 1970s the UN encouraged countries to keep their farmers away from cities, emulating the communist forcing back to the land] p288 As soon as a person reached the eighth rank, which corresponded to a colonel in the army or a captain in the navy, he automatically became a "noble" p289 Nevertheless, when, after four years, Alexander saw that little headway was being made, in 1860 he liberated all the crown serfs. Then, overriding all objections, he spoke as an autocrat: "This I desire, I demand, I command," and set a deadline for the rest of the nation. On March 3, 1861, he signed the emancipation decree into law, two days before Lincoln's first inaurguation, and two years before the United States freed the slaves p313 One of Tolstoy's deep desires in the creation of his novel was to show that his serf-owning grandparents, parents and indeed, even, himself were not the inhuman monsters of the popular imagination, but decent men and women who lived the best they could with an unjus institution which they had not created p320 Dostoevsky, Western society was too materialistic and commercial p326-7 [Florovsky's anti-Hegel?] Herzen was a man passionately devoted to individual liberty who dedicated hislife to rebellion against every form of oppression.. weekly newspaper, The Bell (Kolokol).. officially prohibited.. 1857 to 1861, Herzen's newspaper was the principal political force in Russia, and its article often led to immediate action. The newspaper was found on the desks of ministers and even of Alexander II, who read it regularly and carefull and tried as he could to correct the abuses he cited p328 On March 14, 1881, they assasinated Alexander with a bomb. Fatefully, in his pocket on the day he was killed was a draft of a constituton which was to be published in the newspapers on the following day pp396-8 old-style merchants, many of them stern Old Believers [compare to Quakers?], had the reputation of being a hard-working, hard-driving, hard-praying lot, despotic and tyrannical in their family life, cunning and ruthless in business.. wide abyss yawned between the bourgeoisie and the intelligensia.. end of 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, RUssia led both Europe and Americain its rate f economic growth.. Between 1885 and 1913, oil production, organized by the Nobel family that had come from Sweden and settled i St Petersburg in 1835, increades four and a half times. (The famous Alfred Nobel, who returned to live in sweden in the early 1860's, exploded his first ines in the Neva River, based on work he had done onnitroglycerine with his Russian professor at the University of St Petersburg. His two brothers, RObert and Ludwig, stayed on in Russia and went on to develop the richly productive Baku oil fields.).. In the late 19th century, these independent dynasties of merchants exercised great power. In their beloved Moscow, they built hospitals, clinics and schools, old people's homes and rest homes for students.. In fact, wrote Stanislavsky, "the finest institutions of Moscow in all spheres of life including art and religion were founded by private initiative." #@# Florinsky (Columbia),Russia, Macmillan 1953 p2 Not unlike the United States, although for different reasons, Russia had her "frontier,".. absence of natural barriers also greatly facilitated the invasion of Russian territory by the nomadic tribes of the steppes. The struggle against these invaders, which heavily overcast the life of the nation until near the end of the eighteenth century, left a deep and lasting imprint upon the development of the country.. rivers that the population settled in the early stage of the country's history p4 Asiatic invades felt at home in the steppes and seldom made any attempt to penetrate the forest p9 With the downfall of the Khazars and the appearance of the Patzinacs, the necessity of such defense was strongly felt. It was in 862 that, according to tradition, Riurik, the first Nordic ruler of Russia and the founder of the dynasty, established himself in Novgorod p38 Crude, ruthless, passionate, anarchistic, and often bloody as were the meetings of the veche, it was the nearest approach to a democratic institution Russia has ever experience.. immemorial customs, a successor perhaps of the ancient assembly of the clan elders.. Tatar invasion had dealt a death blow.. supremacy of Kiev, however, was built on a shifting foundation.. unification of Russia under the early Kievan princes was, as we have seen, largely illusory.. advantages derived by Kiev from its position on the great water route leading from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from its commercial relations with Byzantium gradually became impaired p39 transformation of the princes and the boyars from merchant soldiers into a landed aristocracy p43 Russia of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, weakened as it was by internal dissensions and the weight of the Tatar yoke, fell easy prey to its neighbor, and energetic, vigorous and ambitious young state.. northwest the Teutonic knights, who appeared on the shores of the Baltic Sea early in the thirteenth century, displayed fanatical zeal in bringing, by fire and sword, the light of Roman Catholicism alike to Lithuanians, who were heathens, and to the Orthodox Slavs, while in the west there was strongly felt the pressure of a militant Roman Catholic Poland. In the northeast the growing power of Muscovy was forcibly advancing its expansionist claims and policies that were often opposed to the interests of the Russian southwest. Under these conditions it was not surprizing that the harassed south Russian princes ranged themselves behind the determined leadership of the Lithuanian grand dukes p61 In 1275, for instance, the Russian princes with the support of the Tartar troops fought a successful war against Lithuania pp62-3 Many of them, it will be recalled, had to pay frequent and protracted visits tot he Golden Horde and, in turn, had to receive Tartar dignitaries who arrived uninvited with large retinues and remained as long as they pleased. Some of the Russian princes married Tartar princesses.. severe crisis that developed in the Mongo state in the second half of the fourteenth century and brought about the collapse of that state a century later had among its consequences the influx into Russia of Tartar princes and high officials, accompanied by numerous servants and armed detachments. The growing power of Moscow offered them better opportunities than did the Golden Horde... Kliuchevskly, at the end of the seventeenth century about 17 per cent of the Moscow upper class was of Tartar or eastern origin p65 determined Mamai to teach a severe lesson to his rebellious vassal. He concluded an alliance with Yagailo, grand duke of Lithuania, and in the summer of 1380 crossed the Volga.. Russian army met the Tartars in the Kulikovo plain on Septmber 8, 1380.. not unlike that of Greece on the eve of Marathon pp128-9 Reverend Golubinsky, the emminent and penetrating historian of the Russian Church, has aptly described the resulting situation as that of a "double-faith," that is, heathenism and Christianity.. just as ignorant of Christian dogma as were their parishioners.. Far from denouncing pagan and semi-pagan observances, the clergy encouraged them, partly because of ignorance and parlty because they were a source of revenue.. Golubisnky, the strict observance of the Church ritual - genuflections, constant performance of the sign of the cross, and so on - goes back no further than to the middle of the reign of the very pious Tsar Alexis. Contrary tot he widely held assumption, the indifference of the masses towards religion is one of the characteristics of Russia's history p165 The unhappy fate of Constantinople was explained by the Moscow theologian as a punishment for accepting union with Rome.. Filotheus a monk in a Pskov.. [inspired by Bulgarian Miliukov] substitute Moscow for Tyrnowo as the new [Rome] capital of the Christian world p166 devised a novel and imaginative historical and genealogical scheme which made the Moscow dynasty the direct descendants of "Pruss, brother of the Roman Caesar Augustus.".. tale that Russia had received Christianity, not from Byzantium, but directly from [St] Andrew p167 Moscow government needed land for distribution in service tenure. The ranks had been steadily increased as a consequence of the rapid expansion of its territory and of the almost uninterrupted wars. The large ecclesiastical estates were a coveted p202 oprichnina gradually assumed control of the chief domestic markets and of the principlal trade routes. The result was that the zemshchina, with its flickering tradition of local independence, was brought under the sway of the landholders unreservedly controlled by the state. the two most signicant consequences of oprichnina were the final destruction of the political influence of the old landed aristocracy and the forcible transfer of land on a huge scale p203 Ivan, taking advantage of internal dissension within the Tartar states, conquered and annexed Kazan in 1552 and Astrakhan in 1556.. Ivan, who in the ealry stages of the expedition threatened the Stroganov with his displeasure for involving him in a conflict with the Siberian rulers and promised to send the Cossacks to the gallows, changed his mind when the venture proved a triumph p210 It might be supposed that the government could count on the support of the large and rapidly increasing group os sluzhilye liudi (also known as deti boyarsliia and dvoriane), that is, hereditary tenants holding land (pomestie) subject to the obligation of military service. The dvoriane of the sixteenth century, however, were a motley agglomeration of people drawn from every stratum of society, including the slaves (kholopy) p211 A pomestie abandoned by its tenants was of no use to its holder, and the government had a double reason for putting a check on a process of migration which not only depried the state of a large number of taxpayers, who no longer could be reached, but also undermined the economic foundation on which rested the organization of the military class p215 indebtedness to the landlord, which prevented them from taking advantage of their right of moving away.. Diakonov describes these tenants as the first Russian serfs. It was from these two roots - the indebtedness of the peasant tenants to their landlords and the fiscal policy of the Muscovite state - that the institution of serfdom evolved gradually and in a piecemeal fashion. Its origins are lost in the darkest of ages and it did not reach its full development until the middle of the seventeenth century. In the sixteenth century a combination of peculiar circumstances, with which we are already familiar, contributed to the acceleration of the process of enslavement of the once free tenants. The oprichnina of Ivan the Dread, with its reshuffling of landlords on a gigantic scale, could not but throw into confusion the masses of the farmers. This confusion was further aggravated by the spread of the pomestie form of landholding, accompanied as it was, by the creation of a vast number off small estates with the resultant personal dependance of the tenants on their landlords p216 Since the ingenuity of the Moscow chanceries had tightly closed every loophole that would permit a peasnat farmer to improve his position, he took the law into his own hands and fled from the oppressors. The expansion of the Russian frontier towards the east during the reign of Ivan IV added impetus to the process of migration. This reprieve, however, proved short-lived for the governement was not slow in distributing the newly acquired territories as pomestie, and the fugitives from advancing serfdom found themselves in conditions similar to those they had attempted to escape. For those who were longing for freedom and adventure, there wa still another haven in the no man's land in the southern steppes which separated Muscovy from the Crimean Tartars. In the sixteenth century the territories north of the Black Sea were swarming with fugitives from Muscovy, Poland, and Lithuania. Known as the Cossacks, and loosely organized into semi-military groups under an elected leader, they made a precarious living chiefly by brigandage and by entering the military service of whoever cared to pay them p242 In a proclamation issued at the end of 1611, or early in 1612, the Cossacks were denounced, both Marina's infant son and the Polish king were repudiated, and the election of a new [1st Romanov] tsar was promised p286 When the news of the defeat of the Russian troops by a combined force of Poles, Tartars, and Cossacks at Chudnov (1660) reached Moscow, the tsar made hasty preparations to abandon the capital because he suspected and feared the probable reaction of his "faithful" subjects.. For if the populace of Moscow manifested no intention of overthrowing the tsar, it was in the habit of treating his august person with a complete lack of respect p287 Religious practices were reduced to the superstitious repetition of traditional formulas whose magic power was believed to be the greater the less one understood what they meant. The departure from custom in such matters appeared to many Russians as heresy and blasphemy. There were other reasons why the opposition to the reforms embarked upon by Nikon and Alexis was stiffen