soc.culture.greek,soc.culture.russian,alt.religion.christian.east-orthodox,soc.history.early-modern,alt.help.with.homework,relcom.politics,grk.news grep -nA1 '\#\@\#' ~/byz/byzhst.txt | sed '/--/ d'| sed '/#@#/ d' > byzhst.idx #@# Sourcebook for a Modern Byzantine Macro-Byzantine Historiographical Distillation Modern Ivy Byzantine Encyclios Paideia Epitome #@# TABLE OF CONTENTS BY LINE NUMBER (Line numbers approximate as inserting index below disturbs the numbers) #@# 337- Egypt, Greece, Rome, Freeman Oxford 1996 ISBN0-19-872194-3 840- Phoenicians & West Aubet trTurton Cambridge ISBN 0 521 41141 6 932- Podhoretz, Prophets, Free Press, 2002 ISBN 0-7432-1927-9 1056- Basic Judaism Steinberg 1947..75 Harvest 0-15-61069801 1184- Gospel acc Moses, Athol Dickson ISBN 0-7394-3550-7 brazospress.com 1220- GOD 101 Rabbi Terry Bookman ISBN 0-399-526258-7 2000 1310- Jews of Christ's Time (W D MOrrison, Putnams) 31Aug1890 Chicago Daily 1320- Eidelberg Judaic_Man ISBN0-391-03970-9 1996 p104 1361- Jewish Customs, Bloch, Ktav 1980 1373- Jacobs, Holy Living: saints & saintliness in Judaism ISBN 0-87668-822-9 1389- Grace, Punishment, and the Torah. Rosen, Jonathan American Scholar; 1423- Sacred Texts: A review of Interpreting the Bible and the Constitution by 1446- New Light on the Torah, Jaroslav Pelikan is Sterling Professor Emeritus of 1482- Vox Graeca Guide Pronunc Classical Greek Wm Sydney Allen Cambrigde 1542- SEPTUAGINT LAMENTATIONS GREEK HEBREW INTERPRONOUNCIATION 1566- Pronounciation of Greek and Latin Edgar Sturtevant (Yale) 1920..1940 1588- Warren Treadgold, Hist_Byz_State&Society, sup.org 1997 1883- H A Gribb Mohammedanism Cumberledge (Oxford '49 '54) p31 " And 1889- 7Essays on Christian Greece, Demetrios Bikelas, Garnder, Paisley, 1890 1935- Byzantine Christianity, Magoulias, Rand McNally 1970 1954- Obolensky [Oxford], ByzCommonwealth, svots.edu 1982 orig 2249- Iorga Byzantium After Byzantium ISBN 973-9432-09-3 2321- Byzantine Achievement, Robert Byron, Russell, 1964 [orig 1929] 2449- Charanis [Rutgers], Stud Demogr Byz Emp, London, 1972 2618- Kazhdan, Ch Byz Cult 11&12c 1985 ucal 2624- Kazhdan 1982 DumbOak ISBN 0-88402-103-3 2663- Alan Harvey Eco Exp Byz Emp Cambridge 1989 ISBN 0-521-37151-1 2678- Constantelos Christian Hellenisnm ISBN 0-89241-523-1 caratzas.com 2773- John Meyendorf, Byzantium & Rise of Russia, Cambridge, 1980 repr 2930- "Were Ancient Heresies National or Social Movements in Disguise", A 3029- Islam & Oriental Churches, Wm Ambr Shedd, Young Peoples Missionary 3062- Robinsom Claremone Nag Hammadi Henrickson 1986 ISBN0-913573-16-7 3094- Antioch Downey Princeton 1961 [heavily refs Malalas] 3140- Brock&Harvey Holy Women Syr Orient UCal 1987 ISBN 0-520-05705-8 3192- Mircea Eliade HistReligIdeas 1985 Chicago ISBN 0-226-20404-9 3275- Schmemann HistRdEOrth svots.edu 1977 (1963 Holt, tr L Kesich) 3993- Vladmir Lossky, Mystical Theology, StVlad 1976 (1944) ISBN 0-913836-31-1 4063- Basil, On the Human Condition, SVS 2005 (6meron) 4120- Florovsky EaFath4c (v7 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsansalt FL9490 1987 ISBN 4396- Florovsky AspChHist (v4 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsanstalt FL9490 1987 4568- Jesus in History Kee HBJ 1977 4663- St Isaac Nineveh, Ascetic Life, St Vlad, ISBN 88141-077-2: 4712- Eastern Orthodox Church, Benz 1957/2009 Aldine Transaction Rowohlt 4757- Desert Father, Cowan, Shambala 2004 4835- Columbia Hist World Harper 1972 ISBN 0-88029-004-8 [foreword by 5162- Walter Blair, Meine, Rabe, Jahn, Hist World Lit, UOK, Chicago, 1940 5465- Columbia Hist Wst Philos 1999 ISBN1-56731-347-7 5699- Dewey, Ethics p5 1960 (1908,1980) 5707- Science reporter David Brown reflects on What's 5719- Heilbroner Worldly Philosophers Touchstone 1953-1995 5794- Ben S. Bernanke, Vincent R. Reinhart, and Brian P. Sack FRB WP 2004-48 5802- Phelps JPE 76#4 1968 generalized excess demand can be regarded as a 5812- Mundell JPE 1963 71#3 money rate of interest rises by less than the rate 5817- Calvo JPE 85#3 1977 increase in the rate of expansion of money supply 5825- Milton Friedman JPE 94#3 1986 Monetary economists have generally treated 5830- Sargent Wallace JPE 83#2 1975 under an interest rate rule the price level 5833- Milton Friedman JPE 69#5 1964 changes in the stock of money exert an 5838- Friedman & Schwartz JPE 90#1 1982 Short-term assets are a closer 5849- This Time is different Reinhart & Rogoff, Princeton 2009 5869- New American Economy, Bruce Bartlett, palgrace 2009 5959- New Deal Constitutionalism and the Unshackling of the States Spring, 1997 6037- Zizioulas, Being as Communion, StVlad, 1985, ISBN 0-88141-029-2 6111- Aristotle, ed Apostle&Gerson, Peripatetic, Iowa 1986 6194- Cavarnos ModGrkThough 1986 1969 0-914744-11-9 6257- The new Cavafy. Bowersock, G.W. American Scholar; Spring96, Vol. 65 6277- Conley Rhet Eur Trad 1990 0-226-11489-9 6334- Kennedy Hist Class Rhet 1994 Princeton 0-691-00059-x 6362- Pelikan Divine Rhetoric 2001 0-88141-214-7 6446- College Manual of Rhetoric, Charles Sears Baldwin (Yale) Longmans Green 1906 6519- Perelman New Rhetoric 1958 Notre Dame 1969 0-268-00446-3 6665- Diplmcy (Negoc Souverains) Callieres 1647-1717 1983 Leicstr 0-7185-1216-2 6879- Pers Self Portr Oldham & Morris 1990 Bantam 0-553-05757-X 6952- Psychiatric misadventures. McHugh, Paul R. American Scholar; Fall92, 6997- Wenger, EInstein Factor, 3river, 1996 7007- A Positive Psychological Theory of Judging in Hindsight Spring, 1998 65 7031- Matching Probabilities: The Behavioral Law and Economics of Repeated 7085- 48 Laws of Power, Rbt Greene & Elffers 1998 Viking 0670881465 7437- Every Move Must Have a Purpose (biz/chess)Pandolfini 2003 Hyperion 7470- Graber, All In, Harper COllins 2005 [Poker & Biz - compare to Game Theory] 7484- Miller, Game THeory at Work, MGH 2003 7577- Adcock Greek Art War1957 UCal 0-520-0005-6 7633- 3 Byz Mil Treatises CFHB XXV Dennis IX 1985 Dumbarton Anon 6cent 7644- Handel, Masters of War, 2001, 3ed, frankcass.com 0-7146-8132-6 7762- Beach Salt&STeel Naval Inst 1999 7794- Thry Intl Pol Waltz (Harvard,Berkeley) 1979 MGH 0-07-554852-6 7871- Keohane&Nye(Harvard) Power&Interdep 2ed 1989 ScottForsmn 0-673-39891-9 7990- Strateg Tht Am 1952-1996 Trachtenberg PSQ 104#2 1989 8029- Conv Deter & Conv Retal in Eur Huntington Intl Scty 8#3 Wtr83-4 8065- Between Power and Principle: An Integrated Theory of International Law 8115- Richard Pipes Sov Think Win Nucl War Commentary 7/77 p34 According to the 8123- The Road to Moscow Gary Hart, Dimitri K Simes. The National Interest. 8162- The Panda Menace Antoine Halff. The National Interest. 8188- Senior Chinese diplomat visits Taliban chief in Afghanistan December 13, 8201- The First World Hacker War By CRAIG S. SMITH NY Times May 13, 2001 After 8207- Clash Civ Huntington Frn Aff Smr 1993 8259- How Countries Democratize Huntngton PSQ 106#4 1991 8312- IntroArts Collins 1969 Columbia 8433- Theol Icon Ouspensky trGythiel 1978 svots.edu 0-88141-124-8 8475- Frank Lloyd Wright, the many lives of. Pinck, Dan American Scholar; 8504- Music W Civ P H Lang (Columbia) Norton 1997 1941 0-393-04074-7 8972- Wm Ted deBary E Asian Civ Harvard1988 0-674-22405-1 9026- Solomon, Chinese Negotiating Behavior 1-878379-86-0 9032- Arayama & Mourdoukoutas China Against Herself 1999 1-56720-245-4 9047- The new Confucianism in Beijing. 9123- Sorman Empire of Lies Encounter 2008 9179- Coming CHina Wars Navarrro FT Pearson 2007 9212- Luce In SPite of the Gods Doubleday 2007 9239- Greenfed CHina Syndrome Harper Collins 2006 9304- Jaspers Philos&World 1963 Regnery 0-89526-757-8 9355- Dilworth, Philosophy in World Perspective, Yale, 1989, ad_passitum 9420- 9585- Plato's Impossible Polity [Plato's Republic,2005, Rosen, Yale] Brann, Eva 9609- Mussolini's Brain Trust Moss, Myra Claremont Review of Books v. 6 no. 2 9630- Popper Selections, Princeton, 1985 9724- Massie, Land of Firebird, Touchstone, 1980 ISBN 0-671-46059-5 9955- Florinsky (Columbia),Russia, Macmillan 1953 10425- Embarrassing Europe WashPost 22Sep1885 Paris 21Sep Semi-official advices 10437- NYTimes 1Aug1860 was not the whole war a piece of folly and a sham, in the 10443- NYTimes 15Oct1861 Edward Everett An official expression of the views of the 10452- NYTimes 16Jan1862 Rurik of Rosslagen (in Sweden) arriving sword in hand 10468- Solzhenitsyn Mortal Danger 1980 Harper&Row (FA 58#4) 10493- Imperial Russia, 1998, ed Burbank, indiana.edu, 0-253-33462-4 10565- NY Times 1Feb1892 Serfdom Again in Russia p1 10579- NY TImes 2Apr1877 Socialistic Spectre of Europe p4 10604- Atkinson, EndRuLandCommune Stanford 1983 10726- Peasant19cRu Vicinich Stanford 1968 10805- Redfield Peasant Society 1956 Chicago LC56-6654 10860- Keyes Peasant Strategies in Asian Societies JAsnStd 8/83 42#4 10885- Edral & Whiten [St Andr Scot] Human Egalitarianism Curr_Anthro 35#2 1994 10911- Macey Govt&PeasRu 1861-1906 1987 ISBN 0-87580-122-6 10963- Moral Economy Peasant J C Scott 1976 Yale ISBN 0-300-01862-2 11095- NY Times 2Jul1876 Russian Village Commune p4 11123- Soil & Soul Hellberg-Hirn Ashgate 1998 ISBN 1-85521-871-2 11200- Russia & Soul Pesmen Cornell 2000 ISBN 0-8014-3739-3 11214- Nomads & Sedentary Castillo 1981 ISBN 968-12-0109-4 11246- Rancour-laFerriere Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and Cult 11286- Russia 1812-1945, Graham Stephenson, Praeger 1969 11397- Russian Negotiationg Behavior, Schecter, 1-878379-78X 11409- Randall, Reluctant Capitalists: Russia..Transition 0-415-92824-9 11432- Weber ProtestantEth&SpirCaptlsm 1904..30 trTalcParsons 0-415-25406-x 11495- van den Haag Capitalism:Src Hostlty 1979 Epoch 0-89948-000-4 11540- Mises Bureaucracy Yale 1944 Arlington 1969 87000-068-3 11563- Bastiat Law 1848 Dean Russell FEE 1950 11587- Moderation in defense of extremism. Rutenberg, Alan American Scholar; 11620- Lord Acton and the Lost Cause. Clausen, Christopher American Scholar; 11688- Iatrogenic government. Moynihan, Daniel Patrick American Scholar; 11725- Sowell Knowledge & Decisions 1980 Basic 0-465-03737-2 11949- Bickel, Morality_of_Consent,Yale,1975 11994- Chas Beard PSQ 27#1 3/12 Supreme Court - Usurper or Grantee? 12062- Zelermyer Legal Reasoning Prentice Hall NJ 1960 12081- Blackstone,Commentaries Laws&Constitution,Clarke(1796,London;2005,Elibron 2005) 12240- CENTENNIAL TRIBUTE ESSAY: A Theory of the Laws of War Winter, 2003 70 12301- The Origins of Judicial Review Summer, 2003 70 U. Chi. L. Rev. 887 12353- Dollar&PlcyMix, Mundell, Princtn Ess Inl Fnc 85, 5/1971 LC750-165467 12388- Ottoman Centuries, Kinross, 1977, isbn 0-688-08093-6 12706- American antiquity. Cornog, Evan 12730- Sons of Conquerors, Hugh Pope, Overlook Duckworth, 2005 12835- The National Interest 2002 SPRING Charles Horner The Other Orientalism: 12930- Stavrianos, Balkans, NYU 2000 0-8147-9766-0 13088- Charlemont in Greece & Turkey 1749 Trigraph London ISBN 0-9508026-5-4 13164- Biddle [later Bank of US prez], Greece 1806, ed McNeal, PennStateU 1993 13319- Mod Greece Woodhouse Praeger/Faber 1968..91 13871- Chicago Tribute 6Apr1866 threre was probably no country in the world in 13890- Grant and Greece NYTImes 9Dec1868 quoting Independence Hellenigue 13897- Greeks in America NYTImes 4Aug1873 Greek merchants of this City, whose 13906- Modern Greece NYTimes 11Mar1874 Greece stood next to Germany in 13912- NYTImes 11Dec1876 Greeks & Turks The Greeks, whetever defects thay may 13924- CANARIS NYTimes 1Oct1877 A funeral service for the repose of the soul of 13938- Chicago Daily Tribune 26Aug1878 DEFRAUDED GREECE The records of the meeting 13946- Hellenes of To-Day (review of book by Glasgow Prof Jebb) NYTimes p3 13957- DOWNTOWN GREEKS WORSHIP NYTimes 8Jan1894 basement of the Judson Memorial 13968- F A ROE p5 NYTimes 6Dec1896 Greece has been the universal pedagogue of 13978- US ADMIRAL WANTS TURKS DRIVEN OUT NYTimes 11NOV1912 [Colvocoresses on 13982- CONDEMN GREEK ACTIVITIES IN ANATOLIA 3Jan1920 NYTImes p10 findings of an 13993- MORGENTHAU URGES EXPULSION OF TURK Boston Daily Globe 23Feb1920 p8 "If the 14000- RED TROOPS FORM LINK WITH KEMAL NYTimes 22Aug1920 Two Bolshevist cavalry 14015- TRAGEDY OF SMYRNA AS GREEKS SEE IT 17Sep1922 NYTimes HE BLAMES FRANCE 14022- GREEK EX-PREMIERS SHOT FOR WAR ROUT 29Nov1922 NYTImes Blamed for Upholding 14025- SEE REUNION STEP AT ANGLICAN PARLEY NYTimes 9Jul1930 movement for 14030- Jews at Sofia Aroused 13Sep1934 NYTimes Sofia Jews ascribe M. Venizelos's 14034- GREEK ARMY ROUTS MACEDONIA REBELS NYTimes 5Mar1935 Venizelos was reported 14040- GREEK JEWS HERE PRAY FOR VICTORY 25Nov1940 NYTimes p13 Greece may be 14047- EXTINCTION FEARED IF AID FAILS GREEKS 2Jun1942 NYTimes p4 Returning 14061- Paidomazoma Karavasilis Rosedog 2006 isbm 0-8059-7320-6 14119- Gerolymatos Red Acropolis Black Teror 2004 ISBN 0-465-02743-1 14183- 64 PLANES IN RAID 10Aug1964 NYTimes p1 Turkish aircraft struck against 14193- ATHENS ATTACKS EX-PREMIER'S SON 18Jul1966 NYTimes The Government of 14202- King Was Isolated When Coup Begam 27Apr1967 NYTimes p5 The preparations 14210- NYTimes 24Mar1974 Greece's Worst Crisis p220 14227- Pettifer, New Macedonia question, St Martin's 1999 ISBN0-312-22240-8 14306- Yugosl Communism & Maced Question Palmer & King (US dipl) 208-00821-7 1971 14321- Greeks and Bulgarians NYTimes 25Apr1886 In short, Russia is backing 14349- NY Times 24Feb1878 Russo-Turkish Treaty p1 14366- Raphael Patai, The_Arab_Mind, hatherleighpress.com 2002,1983,1976 14431- The Middle East crisis in historical perspective. Lewis, Bernard American 14463- Pluralism, Intolerance, and the Qur'an. Asani, Ali S. American Scholar; 14547- Panislamism in Europe NYTimes From Paris Liberte 16Jul1881 All Islam is 14551- Trifkovic, Sword of Prophet, ReginaOrthodoxPress.com,2002 14765- National Interest 2005 FALL Dov S. Zakheim Blending Democracy: The 14839- The National Interest 2004 SPRING Derk Kinnane Winning Over the Muslim 14909- Sproul & Saleeb, Dark Side of Islam 2003 IBN 1-58134-441-4 14923- Mohammed 1902 Margolith Putnam 14936- Musl W Eur Nielsen Edinburgh 2004 3ed 14950- Tsugitaka Muslim SOc 2004 ISBN 0-415-33254-0 15002- Luke & Keith-Roach Hbk Palestine & Transjordan 1930 Macmillan 15024- Russia & Mediterranean 1797-1807 Norman E Saul Chicago 1970 SBN 15143- Nesselrode & Rus Rappr w Britain, Ingle, California, 1976, 15197- 1983 Thessaloniki Inst Balk Stud "Les Relations Greco-Russes 15222- A J P Taylor, From_Napoleon_to_the_Second_International (Essays on 15286- Disraeli Sayings (Blake, Duckworth 1992 2003) 15325- Disraeli, Andre Maurois (aka Emile Herzog) trMiles 1928 LC55-14913 15584- New World, Old Myths Mann 1491: Reviewed by Bruce S. Thornton Summer 2006 15611- Fischer Albion's Seed 1989 Oxford 0-19-506905-6 15722- Anglophilia, American style. American Scholar; Summer97, Vol. 66 Issue 3, 15743- Lost Causes and Gallantry. Burroughs, Franklin 1 American Scholar; 15816- Bourgeois virtue. McCloskey, Donald American Scholar; Spring94, Vol. 63 15895- Gura,UNCCH, Jonathan Edwards, 2005, fsgbooks.com ISBN 0-8090-6196-1 15959- Bell, D L Moody Collection, Moody Press, 1997, 0-8024-1715-9 16033- Schrader, Germans in Making America, 1924/1972 0-8383-1432-5 K of C 16081- Soc Darwinism Am Thought Hofstadter 1944 1955 Beacon 0807054615 16148- Calif Progressive and His Rationale Mspi Vly Hist Rvu 36#2 9/49 16183- Lincoln's Vitures Wm Lee Miller 2003 Knopf 0-375-40158-x 16265- The Civil War Congress Fall, 2006 73 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1131 David P. Currie 16345- Dennis D Cordell Warlords & Enslavement in 16367- Kagan Origins War Prsvn Peace 1995 ISBN 0-385-42374-8 16409-Thos Andr Bailey (Stanford) Dilp_Hist_Am_People (9ed=1974;1940) PrenticeHall 16543- 70yrs Panslavism Russia 1800-1870, Frank Fadner, Georgetown, 1962 16585- Panslavism, Kohn, Notre Dame, 1953 16604- Petrovich Panslavism Columbia 1956 16651- Tschizeskij Ru Intlx Hst trOsborne Ardis AnnArbor 1978 16672- Russian Thinkers Isaiah Berlin 194..1948 penguin.com isbn 0-14-013625-8 16765- Kaplan Arabists 1995 FP ISBM 0-02-874023-8 16884- Rose, Origins of the War, Putnam Knickerbocker, 1915 16896- Baer See No Evil (Syriana) 3Rivers 2002 16941- NY Times 11Dec1917 p13 "Says Germans Aided Armenian Killings" 16955- Vahakh Dadrian German Responsibility Arm Genocide 1996 17004- May 23, 1943, Goebbels Diaries, Lochner, Doubleday, 1948 " A report 17013- Peacemakers (aka Paris 1919) Margaret Mac Millan, 17103- NY Times 22Aug1920 Red Troops Form Link With Kemal p1 17111- NY Times 25 Nov 1920 Kemal and Soviet Plan Free Islam p17 17128- TURKS ARE EVICTING NATIVE CHRISTIANS NY TIMES 12jun15 p4 17135- German Directed the Turks at Van NY Times 6oct15 p3 17146- Armenian Massacres 16Dec1894 NYTimes As a consequence of the Crimean war 17156- SAW ARMENIANS KILLED NYTimes 23Mar1896 Mihram Dalmajian, an Armenian 17161- NY Times 14Nov1915 Bulgaria to become Catholic? p2 17170- NYTimes 10Dec1921 Metaxakis Elected Patriarch p4 17196- NY Times 11Jan1923 Millions Must Quit Homes in Near East p1 Edwin L James 17229- Monks of Mount Athos NYTimes 18Aug1878 from the Turkish Sultan a lease of 17236- ATHOS MONKS DEPORTED 27Jul1913 C3 NYTimes colony of Russian monks, which 17241- MOUNT ATHOS BECOMES MONASTIC REPUBLIC NYTimes 20May1927 p1 By an annex to 17248- NY Times 10May1925 Tikhon to Have Successor Unless Soviet Prevents p x11 17256- NY Times 17Jan1921 Reds Convert Refugees p3 17260- NY Times 8Jun1921 Soviet-Turk Plot nipped by British p15 17273- NY Times 11Nov1919 Kemal, Rebel Turk Leader, Proposes Alliance with Lenin,p1 17280- 13Sep34 NYTimes Venizelos's Threat of Oppression at Saloniki Stirs Colony A 17288- Kondylis Backs Greek Jews NY Times 19Oct35 p8 17294- GREEK CHILDREN FACE STARVATION NY TIMES 21Sep1941 17301- GREECE INVADED 2 YRS AGO NYTimes 28OCT42 p8 17307- GREEKS' EXTINCTION BY FAMINE FEARED NY TImes 27May 1942 p19 17314- The Many Lives of Moses Hadas Columbia alum mag Fall/2001 17346- Dolan, Am Cath Exper Notre Dame 1992 17420- Ignatius of Loyola, Paulist, 1991 17480- Catholic Intlxl&ConservtvPolAm1950-85 Allitt (Emory) 1993 Cornell ISBN 17536- Story of Qumran: How Not to Do Archaeology, Philip R Davies, Bibl Arch 12/88 17551- Diane Ravitch Revionists Revised 0-645-06943-6 17560- Diane Ravitz 2000 Left Back S&S 0-684-84417-6 17580- Ph.D. squid. Ziolkowski American Scholar; Spring90, Vol. 59 Issue 2, p177, 17672- Kornich (CUNY), Underachievement, ChasThomas SpfdIl 1965 LC65-16650 66-09071 17768- 20% Dropout Rate Found For Italian-Americans May 1, 1990 B4 New York Times 17787- Religious Preferences and Worldly Success Mayer&Sharp AmSocRvu 25#2 (4/62) 17802- Lehrer Religion as Det Edu Attainment Soc Sci Rsc 28 1999 17808- Soros by Kaufman 0-375-40585-2 17838- Surely You're Joking Mr Feynman Norton 1985 393-01921-7 17921- Condi,Felix, 2005 Newmarket 1-55704-675-1 17944- Feinstein & Symons Attainment 2'school Oxf Eco Ppr 4/99 51#2 17951- 1st3yrChild Karl Konig Floris2004 FrGstlbnStuttgt1957 ISBN0-86315-452-2 18022- Grosjean, Life w2 Lang Harvard 1982 0-674-53091-8 18094- LITURGICAL MISTRANSLNS BY BP ISAIAH DENVER TheChristianActivist.com v9 18112- Barry Farber How Learn Any Lang MJF 1991 1-56731-543-7 18140- The New Old Way of Learning Languages Blum, Ernest American Scholar; 18157- Nathan Glazer in New Biling USC 5/80 ed M Ridge Transxn 0-88474-104-4 18180- Sowell, Ethnic America, 1981 Basic ISBN 0-465-02074-7 18251- Leaving Race Behind: On growing Hispanic population creates a golden 18281- Papanikolas Amulet of Greek Earth Swallow/OhioU 2002 18323- Schickel, Elia Kazan, Harper COllins 2005 18393- Med Sci & Merck Vagelos Cambridge 2004 18423- Cordell Warlds & Enslavmt in Lovejoy Afr in Bndg 1986 Wisc 0-299-97020-5 18444- Peter Te Yuan Hao 17FEB1955 NYU Ed D dissertation "J2895JAn1355" UM12218 18454- Out of the Barrio - Linda Chavez - 1991 Basic/Harper 0-465-05430-7 18521- Glazer & Moynihan Beond Melt Pot MIT 1963 18584- Irving Howe 1976 World of Our Fathers 0-15-146353-0 18644- Kolesnik & Power, Catholic Education, MGH 1965 LC 65-20975 Gustave Weigel, 18695- Sayre (Columbia) & Kaufman (Yale) Governing NYC Russell Sage 1960 60-8408 19069- Ungovernable City Yates (Yale) 1977 MIT 0-262-74013-3 19101- Bullock, Hitler&Stalin 1993 ISBN 0-679-72994-1 19279- Perret 1999 Eisenhower ISBN 0-375-50046-4 19382- Unholy Trinity [aka Ratlines] Aarons & Loftus St Martins 1998 19528- Lenczowski SovPersUSFrnPol Cornell 1982 19658- Conservatism as an Ideology Huntington Am Pol Sci Rvu 51#2 1957 19672- Bernstein Splendid Exchange Grove Atlantic 2008 19754- Yegrin Prize fp 1991 ISBN 978-0-671-79932-8 19979- Bush: Energy problems severe H. JOSEF HEBERT, Associated Press March 19, 19991- Wead Raising of a President Atria 2005 20105- ModTimes 20s-80s PlJohnson Harper 1983 ISBN0-06-015159-5 20557- Never Give in, Churchill speaches 2003 Hyperion 20657- Dear Americans, ROnald Reagan, ed Weber, Doubleday 2003 20675- WHen Character was King (REagan) Noonan 2001 Viking 20736- Group loyalty&taste for redistribn, Luttmer,JPolEco 6/2001 109#3 p500-528 20754- Blane, Florovsky, SVOTS.edu 1993 0-88141-137-x 20774- Faith for a Lifetime, Abp Iakovos ISBN 0-385-19595-8 20803- Pope Joins Diplomatic Efforts As War Looms By Antoine Blua [Prague, 20814- Unpatriotic Conservatives [David Frum, 7Apr03 National Review] The 20831- [American Church Leader Indicates Retirement May Have Been Pressured AP 20842- World Council of Churches Opposes NATO Force, Urges U.S. to Renew Ban [AP 20852- [New York Times July 24, 1991 Section A; Page 16; Column 5; ARI 20858- [Boston Globe May 2, 1992 METRO Pg. 27 Orthodox renew church council tie; 20864- Manhattan Cathedral Centennial: "Up to this time, the Greek Orthodox 21205- Human Migrations (Years Ago) 21212-Language Trees #@# Egypt, Greece, Rome, Freeman Oxford 1996 ISBN0-19-872194-3 [Grgrgrandson of Archdeacon of Exeter] p14 water for its irrigation came down the Nile in annual floods, most of which originated in summer rains in the Ethiopian maountains. With the floods came silt, and the combination of fertile soil and ready water could produce yields of crops three to four times those from normal rain-fed soil p25 dead man would no longer be judged on his relationship with the king but on his own p31 influx of migrants from Palestine, which was enjoying a period of particular prosperity..called them Hyskos, literatlly 'chiefs of foreign lands'.. take over Memphis.. allied themselves with the Nubians in the far south and they were thus able to reduce the territory of the Egyptian kings to the land around Thebes p37 Thuthmose III, the most successful conqueror of Asia, initiated a policy of bringing back Palestinian princes to Egypt as hostages for the good behaviour of their home cities.. Asiatic gods p40 Religious belief was so deeply embedded in the Egyptian world picture that Akhenaten was, in effect, challenging the intellectual structure.. temples were closed down and their goods were confiscated. The economic structure of the state was upset as lands were transferred direct to the king p43 Ramses is remembered because of the vast building programme he carried out during his reign. Nearly half of the temples which still stand p49 Homer wrote in the Odyssey that medicine in Egypt was more developed than anywhere in the world, and Herodotus, writing some three centuries later, agreed with him.. doctor who followed a text exactly would not be blamed if the patient died, but if he disregarded it and the patient suffered he could even be sentenced to death p55 Osiris, who presided over the trial which decided his future in the afterlife.. forty-two judges.. not killed or stolen, committed adultery, or had sex with a boy. He must never have insulted the king, tresspassed, damaged a grain measure, or harmed the neighbours' land. At the end of the trial the heart.. weighed against a feather. If it was too heavily weighed.. devoured by a monstrous.. no possibility of an afterlife without a preserved body p56 obsessive fear that the deceased might demean his status by having to engage in physical labour, and it became the custom to enclose small figures, the shabtis, as a model labour force p57 stability was, in fact, maintained by occupying and feeding the many peasants who worked on the great building projects during the months of the floods p63 earliest recorded epic, that of Gilgamesh, a warrior king.. first of antagonism and then of comradeship, of Gilgamesh and a wild creature.. Among the stories recorded is that of a great flood.. Parallels have been drawn between its opening sentence and that of the Odyssey p64 Babylonian society allowed more freedom of enterprise than of Sumer. Trade was conducted by individuals rather than the state and landowners were free to exploit their land p65 By the thirteenth century BC the writers of Ugarit were using only twenty-two consonants. At some point (scholars have put forward dates as early as 1300 BC and as late as 1000 BC), the Phoenician cities developed their own alphabet, and probably transmitted it to the Greeks in the ninth or eighth century BC p69 Genesis, which has parallels with a similar account in the Babylonian epic Enuma_Elish. In both myths God (Yahweh) fashions the world from a primordial abys and his work of creation lasts six days after which he rests on the seventh. The story of the flood is, as has already been said, Sumerian in origin. The Garden of Eden seems rooted in a Near Easyern tradition, probably Mesopotamian, of an idyllic garden from which rivers flow. The theme of the righteous sufferer found in the book of Job, perhaps the most profound and penetrating book of the Hebrew scriptures, is paralleled by similar stories in Babylonian literature p73 Greek mercenaries soon formed part of the Egyptian army (together with Phoenicians, Syrians, and Jews, many of whom where refugees from the Assyrian conquests). A thousand kilometers up the Nile some of their signatures have been found inscribed on the leg of a colossal statue of Ramses II p74 united them under Persian rule. With Median troops and the rich pasturelands of the Zagros mountains under his control, he could now expand.. uncontrollable that it was impossible to impose authoritarian rule. Part of Cyrus' genius was to recognize this, and so long as the ultimate source of authority of himself as King of Kings and the Persian god Ahura-Mazda were recognized p78 In Egypt, there are tomb paintings of Cretans bringing cloth as tribute, while Minoan pottery is found not only in Egypt but also along the Syro-Palestine coast p81 Greek entered Greece with invaders from the east about 2000 BC p83 trading routes on which they depended may have been disrupted by the Sea Peoples.. legend, preserved by the later Greeks, that Mycenaean civilization had been destroyed by invaders from the north-west, the Dorians p84 tenth century there appears to have been a migration of Ionic speakers to Asia Minor, where they colonized the central part of the coast, a region later known as Ionia. From the plains of Boetia and Thessaly another dialect, Aeolic, appears to have spread to the northern coastline of Asia Minor p93 Cronos himself fathers the Olympian gods, who under the leadership of Zeus have to do battle with the Titans, children of Uranus and Gaia, before they can reign supreme p97 far easier to cross the Aegean from west to east than to cross mainland Greece from east to west across the [Alpine] Pindus mountains.. For the Greeks, whose lives were always frugal and where a surplus had to be painfully won from the land, the east offered a glittering lure.. best Greek harbours are on the east coast p103 final result was to establish a Greek presence in the Mediterranean from the Black Sea in the northeast to the coast of modern France and Spain in the west. The catalyst was almost certainly population increase in mainland Greece p104 Sometimes, as in the case of Thera, each family with more than one son was ordered to provide one of them for the colony, certainly the fairest way of dealing with land shortage and a good indication of the well-established authority of the polis by the late seventh century p108 Greek goods have been found far up the river valleys in the Russian interior and Scythian art, like Etruscan, becomes heavily influenced by that of Greece. One Scythian king, Scyles, adopted a Greek lifestyle so enthusiastically that he wa skilled by his own people when seen participating in Dionysiac revels p122 word the Spartans used of themselves, homoioi, 'those who are similar'. Uniformity was imposed upon them by fear, the continuous threat of revolt by those they had subjugated. The Sparta state became heavily militarized.. such a paranoic society should gradually isolate p128 destroying the priveleged position..debt ownership were abolished, and Solon even claims that he searched overseas for Athenians who had been sold abroad. The payment of a part of any produce also ended.. opening up of government to a wider class of citizens.. Lesser offices were open to the next two classes, but the thetes were excluded from office. They had to wait another hundred years, when the desparate need to use them as rowers in the expanding Athenian navy p156 conclusions about the differences between free and unfree states and the consequences of unrestricted pride. The Greeks, with their simple life, co-operative political arrangements, and belief in liberty, are, in Herodotus' eyes, superior, and this explains their success p165 condemn an opponent as having pro-Persian, often merely aristocratic, sympathies and was a political rallying cry for decades to come p184 young boy's initiation.. sexual element of the relationship appears to have been restrained, and may not have involved any actual penetration.. substitute for women by older men who had not yet reached the age of marriage.. family would be vigilant to ensure he was not being abused.. For a Greek male to accept the submissive role in a homosexual relationship, or to be paid for this role, was considered so degrading that, in Athens at least, it resulted in the loss of citizen rights p205 most cases were heard by juries of ordinary citizens. A roll of 6,000 citizens was drawn up for each year and from these a jury was selected for each case. The more serious the case the larger the jury, with a maximum of 2,500.. between 5 and 6 per cent of citizens over the age of 30 would be required each year if all the posts of the Boule, the juries, and the administration were to be filled. With the ban on reselction for most posts, this meant that virtually everyone was involved in administration or government at some point in their lives. Even Socrates, who attempted to avoid political life completely, served his time on the Boule p212-3 some 150 subject states.. Poorer Athenians were often given preference in the allocation of places in these settlements. (Pericles' motives, claimed Plutarch, included the desire to rid the city of riff-raff.).. Athenian empire was in many cases a conservative and even defensive.. never the deliberate and ruthless exploitation of resources on the scale followed by later trading states such as Venice p222 It was Sophocles who introduced the powerful independent woman into tragedy, a revolutionary move in a city where women were kept largely in seclusion. Sophocles writes of an earlier archaic world, one of heroes where loyalties are to clans and kin rather than to a city. It is a cruel and inflexible one with the ways of the gods incomprehensible to man p224 Euripides' plays break through the conventions of tragedy by showing human beings alone and responsible for their own actions, however strongly they are controlled by emotional forces they cannot understand. p230 Plato's background was aristocratic.. humiliation of his native Athens at the hands of Sparta. The trial of Socrates appears to have marked a turning-point for him. Democracy for Plato was synonymous with mob rule p233 As Karl Popper has argued in his The_Open Society_and its_Enemies, Plato represents a direct threat to the democratic tradition, and any ruling elite which claims it has the right to impose its own ideals on society is his heir p237 in his Ethics Aristotle argues that goodness cannot be achieved through reason alone.. integrated framework of ethical behaviour.. account of 158 different constitutions, for instance. Insofar as he favoured one form of government it was democracy p241 Thucydides has no illusions about human behaviour. No one before and few after have detailed quite so vividly the appalling cruelty with which men can act when under stress p247 Sparta's inability to act with any kind of sensitivty [to this day!].. 382, when her troops were sent to intervene in civil unrest in her old enemy, Thebes. The city was simply seized, to the universal condemnation of the Greek world.. Seventy states, including Thebes, eventually joined what is known as the Second Athenian League (378-377).. It was to be Thebes, not Athens, who would humble Sparta p251 If Dionysius [Syracuse] had defeated Carthage, the history of the western Mediterranean might have taken a different turn. It would have left him free, for a start, to move into Italy.. 390 the Etruscans and Rome had both been overrun by Celtic.. p252 In his speech Jason [Thessaly] listed Macedonia, a monarchial state on his northern borders, as among his targets. Its timber would allow him to build a fleet.. Macedonia that was to do the conquering.. Pindus [Alp] Mountains, for instance, forming a natural barrier with Molossis (later Epirus).. Macedonian monarchy had shown remarkable survival skills. By the fourth century it was laready some 300 years old.. kings themselves claimed that their family was of [Argive] Greek origin p255 Demosthenes was leader of a democratic faction.. majestic defences of liberty.. hard to apportion blame.. Phillip was steadily moving towards Athens' interests p257 Isocrates (436-338 BC). In a recitation written for the Olympic Games of 380 he had argued that the only way to bring unity to the fragmented Greek world was to launch a national crusade under one leader against Persia.. power struggle for the Persian throne and both Egypt and Babylon were in rebellion p258 Alexander was aware of a heritage that took him back on his mother's side to Achilles and on his father's to Heracles.. tutor he had the most famous intellectual figure of the time, Aristotle.. self-confident, endlessly curious, and reckless p265 siege of Tyre suggested a lack of balance in Alexander's personality. He was beginning to see himself as something more than a human.. distance between Alexander and his commanders was becoming apparent. Darius, brooding on his defeat, now offered Alexander his empire to the west of the Euphrates and an enormous ransom for his family.. was set on the humiliation of Darius p267 eastwards his own position became less strong. His men had achieved victory beyond their wildest.. Parenion, one of Phillip's most seasoned commanders, who had consistently opposed what he saw as Alexander's recklessness, was also assassinated on Alexander's orders.. began to rely on local mercenaries.. Bactria and Sogdania, modern Pakistan and Afghanistan.. Hindu Kush were crossed in April 329 p268 As ever, Alexander showed his inventiveness and flexibility. His archers and javelin men came into their own against bands of nomadic tribesmen who circled the Macedonian armies. Even the most impregnable of citadels fell to his tactics.. 30,000 young men were taken to be taught Greek and trained for Alexander's Armies. Bactria was to become and remain an enclave of Greek culture for centuries to come.. king was not removed from his commanders - he ate and drank, often heavily, alongside them. The tradition of the Persian monarchy was very different p269 myths that both Heracles and Dionysus originated in India.. Indus RIver was crossed amidst great celebrations.. Taxila, whose motives appear to have been to use the Macedonians to defeat rival princes further east.. monsoons had now started. By the time the army had reached the River Beas it had endured seventy days of continuous heavy rainfall and was close to mutiny. For the first time in his life, Alexander accepted defeat. He claimed that a sacrifice has shown the gods did not want him to continue further and ordered the retreat. There was a jubilation in the ranks which Alexander was never to forgive p271 Opis, he announced that all Macedonians who were unfit for further service because of age or injury would be disbanded and allowed to return home.. seen as a gesture of rejection.. became increasingly absolutist.. proclaimed that all Greek exiles could return to their native cities.. disrupt their economies and political stability as the exiles returned p273 Alexander's immediate legacy was not, therefore, an empire. Rather it was a form of monarchy, based on absolute power, an aura of divinity, and conspicuous consumption. This was to be the model he bequeathed to the Hellenistic kings who succeeded him. For generations he became the archetype of the world emperor p274-5 Celts raided down into Greece in the early third century, sacking Delphi in 279, and it was only by confronting them in 277 that Antigonus Gonatas secured the kingdom of Macedonia for himself. Another Celtic people, the Galatians, settled in central Anatolia.. only two Seleucid monarchs survived to die in bed.. 'bread and circus' for the masses began in this period.. [Alexandria] library may have held nealry half a million books.. ambition of acquiring copies of every known text p279 Aetolian League in central Greece gained its cohesion from successful defence of the area against the Celts. After saving Delphi in 279 p292 Even in Judaea, the mountainous region around Jerusalem, a Greek education became popular.. Ptolemies were replaced by the Seleucids in 200.. much more intrusive.. humiliated by the Romans in 168.. eyes on the treasury of the great temple at Jerusalem.. dedicate the temple to Zeus (in 167), guerrilla warfare.. Judas Maccabaeus p294 Celtic groups spread widely across the continent..tribal groups living under the leadership of warrior elites.. Strabo, writing in the first century BC.. "frankness and high-spiritedness of their temperament must be added the traits od childish boastfulness and love of decoration.. vanity which makes them unbearable in victory and so completely downcast in defeat" p297 Parthian empire. Mithriades was a gifted ruler who was quick to exploit the position of his empire as a middleman between his two most powerful enemies, China in the east, and after the demise of the Seleucids, Rome in the west.. silk in return for the majestic horses provided by the Parthians.. Chinese were the only people who knew the secret of the moment when to destroy the larvae of the silkworm p305 Etruscan [Tyrrhenian, non Indo-Eur] supremacy along the coast came under threat from about 550 BC as new waves of Greeks fled from Persian expansion. The Phocaean colony at Alalia in eastern Corsica was particularly threatening. In 540 BC the Etruscans, with some Phoenician support, defeayed the Phocaeans at sea and forced the abandonment of the settlement, but the Phocaeans had also settled in southern France and they now blocked Etruscan trade there. Meanwhile the Carthaginians (Phoenicians who had established the city of Carthage and made it a springboard for further colonization) had consolidated their position in Sardinia and on the western coas of Sicily and gradually forced the Etruscans off the sea p309 Form the eighth through the end of the sixth century Rome.. not hereditary and each new king seems to have been acclaimed by the people of Rome meeting in the comitia_curiata, an assembly of thirty groups of clans.. symbol of imperium was the fasces, a bundle of rods bound round an axe p310 aristocracy were not necessarily anti-Etruscan.. protectors of Rome against tyranny.. intense suspicion of any individual who tried to use popular support to build personal power.. two magistrates, the consuls, who would hold power for one year but who could not be immediately re-elected p320 As the Phoenician coastal cities were overrun in the seventh century, in turn by Assyrians, Egyptians, and Persians, Carthage emerged as an independent city ideally suited to act as the focus for the commerce of the other former Phoenician colonies of western Mediterranean. Her dominance over them was gradually established. She expanded into north Africa, Spain, Sardinia, Siciily pp322-5 225 BC central Italy was faced with a Celtic invasion.. 218 when Italy was unexpectedly invaded from the north by a Carthaginian army led by Hannibal.. been energetically building a new empire in Spain..One of Rome's oldest allies, the city of Massilia [Marseilles], had clearly become concerned.. Hanibal had a tutor from Sparta.. hostile tribes harassing his men (and the elephants they brought with them) as they passed. Perhaps a third of his army was lost on the way.. Po plain, where the Celts rallied to Hannibal as their liberator.. Celts and Spaniards who were holding Hannibal's centre.. victory at Cannae now allowed Hannibal to consolidate his position in southern Italy.. Scipio.. victory at Ilipa.. war to Africa.. forced the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal.. Rome inherited her empire in Spain. In Sicily, Syracuse, who had joined the Carthaginians, had been taken and sacked by Romans in 212. The most notable casualty was the celebrated scientist Archimedes, whose ingenious war machines had delayed the city's capture p326-7 In 215 Hannibal had made an alliance with Philip V of Macedon. Rome had sent a small fleet to Greece but primarily used the Aetolian League (see p297), traditionally hostile to Macedon, to contain him.. When in 192, Antiochus agreed to support the Aetolian League and crossed with a small army to the Greek mainland, the Romans reacted vigorously. In 191 at Thermopylae he was easily defeated p330 In Italy the confiscation of land allowed the surplus population of Rome to be settled away from the city so that social tensions could be contained. In so far as the only obligation that Rome expected from her allies was the provision of men for war, her continuing supremacy over them also depended on frequent campaigns [Wm Harris, War&Imp_Repub_Rom 1979] p339 For the poorer citizen access to cheap grain was essential and Gaius [Gracchus] stabilized corn prices by instituting a system of bulk buying and storage for sale at a fixed price (thus protecting the poor from variations in the weather and the exploitation of speculators) p341 In 113 news came of two Germanic tribes, the Cimbri and Tuetones, who had embarked on a long and seemingly undirected migration from central Europe to France which intruded from time to time on Roman territory. Each time they met a Roman army they defeated it.. Marius' problem was the settlement of his troops. Those without land to return to could not simply be disbanded.. bitterly opposed by the senate.. never got their land.. exile, now a somewhat discredited figure. Once again violence had infiltrated the political system p347 Pompey's career had already shown that he would not be easy to control, but it was equally clear that he was one of the most able men in the state, energetic, ruthless when he needed to be, and with fine administrative skills.. massive uprising of slaves led by the Thracian gladiator Spartacus.. 70,000-strong force of slaves.. grisly row of 6,000 crucified slaves lining the road from Rome to Capua where the uprising had begun p359 republican by temprament, a believer in the ancient liberties of Rome, but had to admit, even in De Republica, that the breakdown of orer required a strongman to take control. (Cicero had Pompey in mind.) Cicero himself connot have been easy to live with. He could be fussy, self-pitying, and ambivalent in his loyalties. p363 Caesar had had to borrow a legion from Popmey's forces to replace it as well as to recruit two more from Cisalpine Gaul. Unrest among tribes in the north of Gaul had continued into 53 and then in 52 there had been a much more formidable revolt which had covered much of central and south-western Gaul. It had been led by Vercingetorix of the Averni, the first Celtic leader able to transcend tribal loyalties and unite the Celts in defence of their freedom p365 On 1 January 49 Caesar suggested in a letter to the senate that both he and Pompey should lay down their commands.. On 10 January 49 he crossed a small river, the Rubicon, which markd the boundary of Cisalpine Gaul within which hw could exercise imperium and the rest of Italy where he could no. He had, in effect, decalred war on the Republic p367 Pompey must have hoped for some support. However as he steped ashore he was murdered on the orders of the Egyptian authorities, who understood that Caesar was now the man to please.. jointly by a 21-year-old queen, Cleopatra, and her brother, the 15-year-old Ptolemy XII.. She was the first Hellenistic ruler of Egypt to have learnt the language (she knew nine altogether) and to have participated in Egyptian religious festivals p369 fact that he had won a civil war against fellow citizens was glossed over by allocating each triumph to a victory over foreigners, the Gauls, the Egyptians, Pharnaces, and king Juba of Numidia.. acquiring the aura of a Hellenistic monarch.. fair settlement of debts had been decreed in 48.. 80,000 citizens were persuaded to emigrate.. Citizenship was also granted to loyal provincial communities.. calendar.. was replaced on the advice of an Alexandrian astronomer, Sosigenes, by one of 365 days with one extra day added every four years. (This calendar lasted until it required further reform in the sixteenth century.).. increasing absolutist p371 Caesar accepted the idea of a temple dedicated to him and the appointment of Mark Antony as his flamen or priest. More provocative to the average Roman were the accumulation of honours and trapping which hinted of kingship. Here Caesar's behaviour was deeply ambiguous.. committed republicans such as Cassius and Brutus, the leaders, former supported of Pompey whom Caesar had forgiven, and others with more personal resentments. The secret was well kept. Caesar was due to attend a meeting of the senate in a great hall adjoining Pompey's theatre. One of the conspirators was delegated to throw himself at Caesar's feet with a petition, pulling Caesar's toga downwards so he could not defend himself. The others were then to stab him p372 Cicero emerged to preside over the reconciliation. However, when it was discovered that Caesar had left his gardens to the city and a sum of mony to each of its citizens, popular fury against the murderers grew and Brutus and Cassius were forced to leave Rome.. To his dismay Antony found that Caesar had adopted his 18-year-old nephew, Octavian.. Antony was indeed defeated in Cisalpine Gaul but both counsuls were killed and Octavian found himself commander of an army of eight legions. These he refused to give up and marched to Rome to demand and receive a consulship from the humiliated senate. He was aged 19.. November 43 they set up a triumvirate.. liquidation of the Republic was ratified by a meeting of the conscilium.. seize land in Italy to settle their large armies. A death list of 300 senators and 2,000 equestrians was drawn up. There was only one name of consular rank, Cicero. He hesitated over his escape and was caught in his litter and beheaded p374-5 murdering her younger brother and placing the 4-year-old Caesarion as co-ruler.. Antony, who, in contrast to the austere Caesar, had a weakness for opulence, succumbed. He spent the winter of 41 tp 40 with Cleopatra in Alexandria and she bore him twins.. In 39 Parthian forces invaded Syria and even entered Jerusalem. They were repulsed. Antony, who had sent Octavia home when she became pregnant and renewed his relationship with Cleopatra, now planned a major invasion of Partha.. Caesarion was declared the true heir of Caesar (an obvious affront to Octavian) and, with his mother, joint ruler of Egypt and Cyprus.. easy for Octavian to damn him as the plaything of a powerful woman who was corrupting Roman virtues with the decadence of the east.. Antony stabbed himself, while Cleopatra had herself bitten by an asp. Caesarion was later murdered. Egypt, the last of the great Hellenistic kingdoms, was now in the hands of Rome p385 Augustus' formal powers were rooted in republican precendent and there was the knowledge that they had been granted freely to him by the senate and the people of Rome. In combination and duration they extended beyond anything known in the Republic.. Wahtever the realities of his power, Augustus remained scrupulous in his dealings with senators.. An exception was Egypt.. personal conquet pp409-12 Stoic could be stern and unbending. The importance of Seneca is that he humanized.. power under Nero.. Gradually, however, Nero's activities became more sinister. In 59, eggend on by his mistress, Poppea, he decided to murder his mother.. immense psychological burden. Soon a reign of terror began.. Most formidable of all was a Jewish revolt, set of in 66 by the clumsy behaviour of a Greek governor, appointed under the influence of Poppea. A million died in the following years as it was suppressed.. With Nero fied the last of the Julio-Claudians.. outside the traditional noble families of Rome and make his way to power through sheer merit. Vespasian was not to disappoint. He was the first emperor since Augustus to maintain good relationships with those varied constituencies, the senate, the army, and the people of Rome. Although severe in tone and cautious with his spending, he also had a sound awareness of what the empire needed - the definition of boundaries, stable provincial government, and a widening of citizenship so that its subjects could be progressively drawn into loyalty. Nero's reign and the disruption of the year 69 had left the empire unsettled p416 He was assidious in intervening in the affairs of cities, settling disputes and telling them how to arrange their affairs.. Farmers could apply for loans from the imperial treasury at 5 percent interest (instead of the usual 12 per cent). The interest was then placed in a special account and used to pay for grain rations for the children of the poor. Trajan also proved to be the last great conqueror of the Roman empire p419 Hadrian is remembered above all as a builder.. Hadrian's Wall crossing northern Britain from seas to sea.. One consequence of Hadrian's continuous travels was that imperial decisionmaking was considered independently of the senate in Rome.. However, by Hadrian's reign it is clear that the emperor's decisions on matters brought to him directly were now also considered to have the force of law. Such decisions were known as rescripts and some of Hadrian's are quoted in Justinian's great Digest of Roman law p422-3 By the time Jerusalem was stormed by Titus in 70 the Romans may have inflicted a million casualties. Those insurgents who were captured alive were distributed as victims to the amphitheatres of the east.. second Jewish revolt in 132-5 was crushed with equal brutality.. earlier traditions of ruthlessness were not dead.. megalomaniac behaviour of Caligula and Nero against their subjects and the lives of Tiberius and Domitian also ended in reigns or terror. Non-citizens had no protection against the arbitrary decisions of magistrates and there is evidence that governors would order executions to appease local pressure groups (the trial and crucifixion of Jesus on the authority of Pontius Pilate can be viewed in this context) or simply to clear overcrowded gaols p463-4 For Edward Gibbon this represented the moment when the human race was more prosperous and contented than at any other time in history, and it was in Antoninius' reign that Aelius Aristides delivered his famous panegyric of Roman rule.. emergence of new, often expansionst, tribal groups. In the Black Seas area the Goths appear in the early third century.. Saratians, nomadic peoples of Asiatic origin, who had established themselves on the Hungarian plain.. Burgundians, emerged on the Elbe to thewest of the Vistula about the smae time as the home of the Oksywie culture became deserted. Similarly other Germanic tribes were drawn together as a confederation known as the Alamanni ('all men'), first attested in 213. The Franks emerged slightly later long the lower Rhine while the Saxons appear along the coast of the North Sea p477 In 293 Diocletian did this in characteristic fashion by sweeping away all vestiges of local currencies and replacing the devalued coins by a currency based on pure gold coins of 5.20 grams in weight with pure silver coins for lower denominations.. The Edict of Prices of 301 is a fascinating document. In it are listed the proposed maximum prices for a vast range of goods and the highest wages each type of craftsman and labourer should receive [Reagan citied this as first failure of price controls] p484 Jesus was brought up in Galilee, a northern region of Palestine. Galilee was governed not by the Romans but by a series of client kings, first, at the time of Jesus' birth around 5BC, Herod and then his son Herod Antipas p485 At one extreme the Sadducees, a wealthy and aristocratic group, with conservative religious and social ideas, were prepared to tolerate Roman rule as offering the best chance of their survival as an elite. They dominated the councils of Jerusalem. At the other extreme, there were those who were actually prepared to countenance armed rebellion against the Romans. In Jesus' time they were not a coordinated group but they were to come together as 'the Zealots' to launch the great Jewish revolt against Rome in AD 66. In between these extremes other sects such as the Pharisees concentrated on maintaining their religious principles intact without offering any open opposition to Roman rule p486-7 Its converts were mainly among Greek-speaking Jews.. synagogues in these large cosmopolitan cities traditionally attracted gentiles.. Jerusalem leaders, Peter and James, wedded to their Jewish background, insisted that Jesus was only for those who were cirumcised and who obeyed Jewish dietary laws.. Paul, a Greek-speaking Jew from Tarsus in Cilicia and a citizen of the empire.. Paul insisted that uncircumcised gentiles could become Christians and he argued his case against restrictive attitudes of the Jerusalem community with vigour. He only got his way when he agreed that his gentile churches would collect money for the church in Jerusalem. There followed broad agreement that the Jerusalem leaders would continue to preach to Jews while Paul would be leader of the mission to the gentiles.. Paul later told the Galatian Christians of a public row he had had with Peter in Antioch. Peter had been prepared at first to eat with gentiles but when joined by fellow Jewish Christians from Jerusalem withdrew p493 no supreme bishop, although those of larger cities, Jerusalem (in very early days), Antioch, Ephesus and Alexandria, claimed some form of pre-eminence in their region. In the second century these cities were affronted when Victor, bishop of Rome, tried unsuccessfully to impose the date of Easter p494 Middle Platonism began to permeate the writings of Christians p495 Logos was a concept developed by Greek philosophers (Stoics as well as Platonists) to describe the force of reason which, they argued, had come into being as part of creation. (It is often translated, rather unhelpfully, as 'the Word'.) Logos existed in human beings as the intellectual power with which they were able to understand the divine world so, in this sence, logos overlapped both the physical world and the divine. Hrist could be portrayed as logos created by God in human form and sent by him into the world to act as an intermediary between god and man p496 Accounts of trials show that it was not so much what Christians believed that worried local governors as their refusal to honour traditional gods p512 Some extremists, such as the Egyptian Hierakas, even doubted that married couples who had enjoyed the sexual act would be admitted to heaven #@# Phoenicians & West Aubet trTurton Cambridge ISBN 0 521 41141 6 p120 kings of Tyre and Byblos were advised, as has already been indicated, by a Council of Elders, or representatives of the most renowned and powerful families in the city, whose power probably lay in their merchantile interest. As far as we an tell from the correspondence of the kings of Tyre and Bublos with the pharaohs of El Amarna, this institution goes back at least to the middle of the second millenium BC p121 Those who belonged to the Council of Elders or Council of State in each of the Phoenician cities were called spt in Phoenician, equivalent ot the Akkadian sapitum and the the Hebrew sophet. In Israel, for example, these suffettes or 'judges' governed the territory in exceptional circumstances in the years 1200-1030 BC. There, they were leaders of clans and tribes, magistrates by divine right, who would be the forerunners of the monarchy. The best-known of the judges of Israel was Saul p126 With respect to the ancient Canaanite religion, the Phoenician religion of the Iron AGe presupposes an ideological break, which implies profound religious, ideological and socio-political changes at the end of the second millennium.. Nevertheless, the most important novelty os the appearance of human sacrifice, unknown, apparently, in the second millenium, and the birth of 'national' gods with no known predecents, like Melqart, Eshmun, and Reshef.. [human sacrifice] also known by the biblical name of 'Moloch sacrifice', would develop in a special way in the Phoenician enclaves in the west, where it appears linked with fertility rites and the monarchy. In Phoenicia, human sacrifice was very sporadic and disappeared in the middle of the first millenium p127 In the city of Tyre, by contrast, the chief divinity was masculine: Melqart, the protector of the city, symbol of the monarchic institution and founder of colonies. Asarte, Baal Shamem and Baal Hammon play a supporting part.. testimony of Herodotus [2:43-44].. saw the temple in Tyre with his own eyes and describes it flanked by the two famous columns of gold and emerald and, inside it, the tomb of the god. Some authors have hinted at a direct link between the two pillars and the Pillars of Hercules [Gibraltar] at the other end of the Phoenician world, in the city of Gadir [Cadiz] (Arrianus 2:17,2-4) p128 immolation of the god through ritual cremation. The intention was, logically, to revive him and make him immortal by virtue of fire. The belief in resurrection by faire, already known in Ugaritic myths, explains the fact that Melqart is also called 'fire of heaven'.. agricultural nature of Melqart, a god who dies and is reborn each year in accordance with natural cycles, was ecliped by his great maritime prowess p129 of Melqart is the history and fate of Tyre and her daughters, the western colonies. In Hannibal's famous oath of 215 BC, the Tyrian pantheon is still mentioned, consisting of Heracles (Melqart) and Asarte, as well as Iolaos or Eshmun, all of them symbols of the monarchy. In the history of Cyprus, Melqart-Eshmun, that is, the royal family of Tyre, appear as founders of the kingdom of Kition. In the fifth century BC, Kition is still minting coins with the efficgy of Melqart. When Alexander the Great beseiged Tyre, the Macedonian, who claime dto be descended from Heracles, expressed a wish to offer a sacrifice in the temple of Melqart for ends that were clearly political (Arrianus 2:15,7-16,7). The Tyrians were categorically opposed to this, cosidering the place to be sacred. Melqart was the symbol of their autonomy and independence, but above all he was the symbol of their national p130 The most ancient Tyrian foundations in the Mediterranean appear to be linked to a temple which, in most cases, was dedicated to Melqart. In fact, Tyrian expansion tot he west coincided with the gradual introduction of the worship of Melqart in Cyprus, Thasos, Malta.. In Gadir and Carthage, the figure of Melqart finds its way even into the story of the foundation p168 famous refernce by the Roman historian Velleius Paterculus (Hist_Rome 1:2,1-3), which placed the founding of Gadir [Utica] eighty years after the Trojan War, that is around the year 1104 or 1103 BC p273 The year 550 BC is usually considered to be the moment of transition from the Phoenician to the Punic phase in the west.. In the Iberian peninsula, the Punic period was accompanied by the very first appearance of traces of a cult and sanctuaries dedicated to Tanit, the principal deity of the Carthaginian pantheon, and by the presence of sober, functional pottery replacing the classic Phoenician red-burnished tableware. From the sixth century onwards, the first great urban centres like Ibiza appear; in them, the official religion of Carthage wasimposed and the relatively peaceful trade of the eighth to seventh centuries gave way to a militarist policy that was to accompany the history of the west until Romanization. The old Phoenician settelements along the Mediterranean coast of Andalusia were abandoned, or were reorganized but always after a gap or generalized break pp274-5 crisis of the Phoenician diaspora in the far west..fall of Typre to Nebuchadnezzar after thirteen years of siege (586-573 BC).. fall of Assyrian empire in 612 BC into the hands of the Medes and Babylonians. THe siege of Tyre came later and merely delivered the coup de grace to an economic situation that made the presence of her commercial agents on the Straits of Gibraltar untenable.. There is no doubt that the Phoenicians generated wealth and prompted profound transformations within the indigenous societies of Andalusia and the Mediterranean seabord p282 Gadir was a merchantine metropolis, founded in response to the resources of Lower Andalusia - Tartessos - with which it established direct trade.. In effect, Gadir did not control the Tartessian hinterland since that was already occupied by a developed population. For that reason, the only traces we know of Phoenician defensive systems or fortifications are limited to the city of Gadir itself p283 In Carthage, rather than of a merchantile emporium, we must speak of an aristocratic colony, which very soon attained urban status and which, through its particularly puritanical and conservative civico-religious institutions, was to monopolize the economic and idological activity of vast territories in the west #@# Podhoretz, Prophets, Free Press, 2002 ISBN 0-7432-1927-9 p2 enemy they knew as idolatry.. keeps coming back under different names and in mutated forms p7 But the most extreme example - or what seems to me the reductio ad_absurdum of this kind of textual analysis - the Book of Obadiah, the shortest in the Hebrew Bible, consisting wholly of a single chapter of only twenty-one verses represent either six or eight unrelated fragments that may have originated with as many different prophets p11 King James Version comes closest in syntax, cadence, locution, and spirit to the original Hebrew.. traslates Hebrew idioms in such a way that they seem entirely native to English p43 We have already seen that idolatry is not yet prohibited among nations other than Israel. And from the classical prophetic literature, we will learn that only at the End of Days will all these nations finally smash their idols and bow down to the one true God p56-60 loose confederation of tribes or clans.. Samuel is a kind of circuit judge.. first king, Saul, whom Samuel himself is instructed by God to seek out and annoint.. reluctantly, since he has already resisted the clamor of the people for a king p77 goal is not to aggrandize their own power but to establish the rule of God - first within Israel itself, and then.. among other peoples p103 Elijah will come to be featured as one of the greatest heroes of the past with an even more important role to play in the future as the herald of the Mesiah.. transported to heaven in a flaming chariot p113 prophetic guilds - as well as their anonymous masters - have by now degenerated p125 Nor does His covenant with Israel entail God's indifference to the moral behavior of other peoples.. seven laws of Noah (prohibitions against murder robbery, adultery, etc).. all the peoples who live before Abraham p129 everything that has been destroyed will be rebuilt.. n. "Sheol was to the Hebrews the abode of the dead. Believed to be located in the depths of the earth, it is a simile for inaccessibility" p159 Feodor Dostoevsky, warned (prophetically sensing the rise of totalitarianism in the next century, as surely as Amos and Hosea experienced intimations of the rise of Assyria in their own day), "everything" would become possible. Nor could even many who agreed with Nietzsche accompany him to his more optimistic conclusion that, liberated from the shackles of religion, mankind could now move to a stage "beyond good and evil" p178 Jon D Levenson.. exegetes of the Middle Ages.. "if the real author is God, it is of no account which human vessel He inspired with any given verse" p183 [Isaiah] some of the greatest poetry ever written in any language p187 angry lament over the expropriations of small landholdings by the owners of large estates.. moral evil abetted by judicial corruption p190 nature worship, one of the forms of idolatry prevalent in the North in those days p213 [Habakkuk] tells the prophet that He is about to unleash the Chaldeans p244 Ezekiel is the only prophet God addresses as "ben-adam," a term that literally means "son of man" p261 It is the same in Babylon, where, Kaufmann passionately argues, the exiles are nothing short of heroic in maintaining their faith under conditions that radically challenge it, and in resisting the pressures to worship strange gods. (They even, he rightly observes, manage to make converts among the Baylonians.) p267 Cyrus.. even granting them a subsidy with which to rebuild their Temple p276 Israel, then, is not to be merely a "mediator of blessings": it is to be the teacher of God's law p280 (In fact, the rudiments of the new institution of the synagogue - which will become the substitute for a temple after the second one is destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE - are evidenlty already present in Babylon in the days of Second Isaiah.) p286 true universalism of the Second Isaiah.. reassurance thisprophet gives to the converts made in Babylonia who are worried about the status they will have when they arrive in Jerusalem p288 Samaritans.. descendants of the Assyrians snet to colonize the Northern Kingdom.. adopted the religionof Israel, and were now practising it.. manner of observance was looked upon as improper by the returnees p309 cessation of classical prophesy in the mid-fifth century BCE (just when - in another touch of mystery? - Socrates and Plato and Aristotle and many other giants of Greek culture are becoming prominent in Athens) p315 keep their people faithful to God because they believed with all their hearts and all their souls that He Had, out of inscrutable love, chosen the children of Israel as the instrument through which His Law would be revealed and ultimately accepted by every other peopel as well... Leo Strauss was obviously right when he located the roots of Western civilization in two ancient cities: Jerusalem and Athens.. Maimonides set out to reconcile the teachings of Judaism with those of Aristotle; then in the next century St Thomas Aquinas dedicated himself to the same gigantic project as it applied to Christianity p326 only God can bring about the messianic era. Not believing in God, and therefore oblivious of that essential truth, revolutionaries of the modern era from Robespierre to Lenin, from Mao to Pol Pot, who set out to realize the utopian visions of a world of perfect justice, harmony, brotherhood, felt justified in constructing totalitarian regimes and murdering as many millions as they thought it would take to createsuch a world.. dream of peace.. disarmers and treaty makers of the 1920s.. had the opposite effect p334 The triggering event was the infamous decree of 167 BCE issued by Antiochus, a Seleucid monarch and a great devotee of Greek culture. Under its provisions, anyone caught with a copy of the Torah or circumcising a baby boy would be executed (and many were, including several of the leading rabbinical sages of the period). Antiochus then followed up this ruthless policy of Hellenization by rededicating the Temple in Jerusalem to Zeus and offering sacrifices to him there. "At this point," Moorer comments, "the extension of divine retribution beyond the tomb came as a necessary corollary to the idea of God's justice and the assurance of his faithfulness in fulfilling his promise to the righteous" p337 A pious Jew offers thanks for the rising of the sun and its setting; for every morsel of food he eats; and even - in a regulation that is at once comical and impressive in its robust and earthy attitude toward life - for the successful conclusion of the lowliest bodily functions p350-1 delegitimize these traditional attitudes and ideas altogether. Students and professors who refused to toe the line were punished by suspension or forced to undergo "sensitivity training".. "reeducation camps".. "Incorrect" points of view on these matters were stigmatized as "hate speech".. religious need not apply.. environmentalism, the antinomian strain grew out of the counterculture's assault on technology with its contempt for the workings of man. To this it appended a kind of nature worship that even involved an attack on "specieism" or the assumption that human beings were superior to animals p353 Paganism often (always?) involved the worship of nature.. sanctioned sexual promiscuity.. involved the readiness to sacrifice one's own children for one's own good.. "Home-Alone America" p357 bowing down to the work of their own hands, what they were worshiping was themselves; and in worshiping themselves, in trusting in themselves as though they were gods, they not only failed to acquire superhuman status, but htey lost even such powers as were granted to human beings, becoming as dead to the world as the idols they constructed.. idolatry amounted to self-deification, the delusion.. [Brown, Mgg Confl, 1983, p54 combining issues increases conflict] In the Ten Commandments, the primary violation of the law is idolatry.. cult of self.. delusion that we humans are capable of creating a perfect world - a delusion out of which in the past century alone mountains of corpses have been amassed #@# Basic Judaism Steinberg 1947..75 Harvest 0-15-61069801 p5 Nathan and Elijah who rebuked kings for deeds of oppression. Amos.. universality of God.. Hosea.. God inexhaustible in mercy.. Isaiah who espied design in history.. universal peace and equity p12 Hilel, a Palestinian sage.. "That which is hurtful to thee do not to thy neighbor. This is the whole doctrine. The rest is commentary.".. Rabbi Akiba.. "great principle" of Judaism in the commandment laid down in Leviticus" Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" p35 Jewish religion is highly intellectualistic in the sence that it places understandign among its supreme purposes, and in the further sense that it believes in knowledge as the key to understanding. But neither knowledge nor understanding is atainable without inquiry, debate, and the right to make up one's own mind. By its nature, then, Judaism is averse to formal creeds which of necessity limit and restrain thought.. For all its heavy intellectualism it sets morality above logic, the pursuit of justice and mercy over the possession of the correct idea p40 Similarly the eleventh century neo-Platonist, Solomon ibn Gabriol, speaks of God as "the mystery in which our thoughts weary themselves to find a stay." Maimonides a century later insists that God so far transcends human comprehension that all positive descriptions of Him are inappropriate p42 Heathendom assumed a deity in and for each object: the river, the tree, the sun; in and for each faculty and function:fertility, memory, the artisan's skill. So it tore reality to shreds, and then, to confound confusion, assumed that each spirit had no other role except to look after its own. Under this construction there was no order, either logical or moral, to things p48 He helps men from Himself by the inflow of His spirit into their hearts, either in response to prayer or through mystical communion or in the course of the normal respiration of the soul. Invading them, He renders them strong with a strength they did not possess heretofore, sharpsighted with an unusual insight, and compassionate with mercy they have not otherwise known p49 Salvation is man's victory over his limitations: ignorance, for instance, or insensitivity; it is his conquest of sinfulness, of the evils resident within him, such as pride, selfishness, hate, lust, cynicism, the deliberate rejection of goodness and truth p54 Than an evil may be the result of some prior sin of the individual on whom it is visited.. That it may represent the expiation of the wrong-doing not of an individual but of his community; that if a man avails himself of the advantages afforded him by his society, he must be prepared to take responsibility for its iniquities. That it is necessary so that man may be a moral being. For how, if there were no evil, could man choose the good?.. That it supplies men with a touchstone on which they may test the stuff of which they are made, an adversary against whom to contend and so grow strong; a contest without which there could be no victory pp62-3 This is the good, according to the formulas of the Tradition: To do the will of God.. To reveal His glory.. To hallow His name.. To imitate Him.. To advance God's kingdom p66 Maimonides asserted that the climax of the religious life and the perfection of man consists in "the possession of the highest intellectual faculties and of such notions as lead to true metaphysical opinions" p67 "The bashful learneth not, the impatient teacheth not".. "Why is Torah compared to water? To teach thee that as water floweth away from the lofty and gathereth only in lowly places, so with wisdom among men" p72 By presenting marriage as a concession to human weakness, it has turned into a second-best what is, properly regarded, the loveliest and most ennobling of all human associations p100 Indeed, from the strictly traditionalist viewpoint, there is a sense in which Gentiles come by salvation more easily than Jews (though not so certainly). For a non-Jew it is required only that he conform to the "seven commandments ordained upon the sons of Noah" which are the principles of piety and morality conceived by the ancient rabbis as binding on all mankind: to refrain from (1) idolatry; (2) incest and adultery, (3) bloodshed; (4) the profanation of God's name; (5) injustice and lawlessness; (6) robbery; (7) inhumane conduct, such as cutting a limb from a living animal. What is more, Talmudic literature is studded with incidents concerning heathens who are said "to have acquired the world to come" by single acts of extraordinary kindness and integrity. Against that, it is expected of Jews for their salvation that they shall undertake to discharge as many of the six hundred and thirteen commandments of Torah as apply to them p119 Prayer to be efficacious must place God's will higher than man's and, when the two conflict, must subordinate the latter to th eformer. Always it must begin with the postulate, implied or expressed, "May it be Thy will." Always it must close with the thought, verbalized or silent, "Thy will be done" fn-p127 Historic Judaism has alway laid heavy stress on cleanliness. We have already noted its insistence on the washing of hands before the breaking of bread. The hygienic design in the dietary laws may well be another case in point. The Tradition provides further for the establishment of public ritual bath houses in every community and specifies the times and occasions at which they are to be visited. This preoccupation with cleanliness stands forth the more remarkably when it is contrasted with the attitude widespread in the Middle Ages whereunder dirt was not only acquiesced in but was sometimes regarded as a concomitant of saintliness p145 Law is an element in Judaism, lat of all, because of the intense Jewish preoccupation with ethics, and because of the historic Jewish insistence that ideals need to be put into habits and disciplines. If they be social they must be incarnated in institutions, folkways, and law. Otherwise, their cogency and content will evaporate, and they woll be left in the end empty vessels p157 Once all rabbis bowed to the authority of the supreme rabbinical court, the Sanhedrin. When that body dissolved - sometime in the fifth century - a portion of its power was conferred by unspoken consent upon the presidents and senates of two great Talmudical academies in Baylonia. In the eleventh century, these too ceased to be effective forces. Thereafter no rabbi has owed obedience to any other pp160-1 As to the form of the hereafter, of Paradise or Heaven or Eden where righteousness is said to be rewarded, of the Hell or Sheol or Gehinnom where wickedness is punished - on this, as on so many other articles of belief, individual Jews have at all times put private interpretations. Indeed it is questionable whether any other tenet of Judaism has been more divergently construed.. On some day to come, the bodies of the dead of all time will arise from their graves, souls will be summoned from the places an states to which they have been committed, and both will be reunited as during their existence on earth. Then on every human being, body and soul together, and in the presence of all the multitudes of all generations, God will pronounce judgement whether of bliss or damantion p162-3 modernists. As they read the Bible, it most ancient portions have only this to say about an afterlife: that the souls of the dead are consigned to a shadowy underworld called Sheol where they continue in a vague and only partly conscious existence.. Only in the days of the Second Temple did these doctrines emerge, partly as a normal unfolding of potentialities latent in Judaism; partly in a response to the stimulation of Zoroastrianism with its teachings concerning Resurrection and the Last Judgement, and of Hellenism with its highly developed notion of immortality. On the basis of this historical construction, some few modernists draw the inference that neither Resurrection not Immortality is integral to the Jewish religion.. retain faith in the deathlessness of man's spirit not only in its naturalistic connotations but in its beyond-this-life significance as well. They are sparing of guesses as to what the state of immortality may be like but firm in the conviction that in some fashion the human personality outlives its corporeal housing p165 God's Kingdom is therefore more than a promise. Obscured and broken though it be, latent rather than overt, it is also an ever-present actuality. Everything in the world subserving goodness is of its dominion. Everyone ministering to the right is, whether knowingly or not, its citizen.. Every formal service closes with a twofold prayer, in the first of which the worshipper offers obeisance to the Kingdom, in the second of which he prays for its speedy coming in its completeness #@# Gospel acc Moses, Athol Dickson ISBN 0-7394-3550-7 brazospress.com [Protestant invited to Jewish Bible study] p21 asking questions is a way to demonstrate humility, because inherent in the question is the assumption that I do not have the answer p25 third explanation for divine silence: I am probably unable to safely handle some of the answers p28 The Lord wants to communicate with me as badly as I want to communicate with him p33 Pure, all powerful, unchanging, all-knowing and ever-present p43 If G-d should ever decide to change the rules in the middle of this hand he has dealt, the entire game would be off p46 suspended strict justice.. withdrawn, for our protection p55 G-d exists outside of time.. can have it both ways p73 paradoxes of Scripture to ease me back toward the middle between the truths.. love G-d _and my neighbor. Faith _and works are both important. Justice _and mercy are required. My action are somehow free _and predestined. G-d is somehow everywhere _and uniquely here.. p75 layer behind layer of truth.. holding two truths in sight simultaneously.. looking past the paradox to focus on the truth.. p76 Blind faith is based on something much too small: me.. true faith is open to new facts, even when they threaten to change my beliefs p108 "Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly father is perfect" [Matthew 5:48 & Leviticus 11:45] p126 human choice and not about inherited [orig sin] p143 felt humble gratitude for the undeserved loan of the offering and returned it in a spirit of thankfulness p150 "The ritual and ceremonial commandments will be abolished in the future that is to be" Niddah 61b p174 study, prayer, obedience to mitzvot and repentant fasting- comes only _after forgiveness has already been received.. offering up obedience to balance disobedience p176 "You do not delight in sacrifice.. broken and contrite heart" Psalm 51:16-17 p255 "G-d's gifts and his call are irrevocable" Romans 11:29 .. does not change and neither does his arrangement with Israel #@# GOD 101 Rabbi Terry Bookman ISBN 0-399-526258-7 2000 betham-miami.org PenguinPutnam.com [cit Jewish scripture: Tanakh, Jewish Publication Society, Phila 1985] p15 anthropocentric systems are bound to fail.. self-interest will tell us that we are exempt from following the rules of conscience p19 graven images.. God is without definition.. p24-25 Ten Commandments we read that the sins.. up to the third or fourth generation.. repeating patterns they learned as children p31 balance of good and bad.. incapable of knowing the one without experiencing the other p35 compelled to cause us to suffer.. return to our relationship with the Holy One p38 miracles have a great deal to do with perception.. p40 voice within.. quiet all distractions.. meditation p43 God seeks us. We call this "grace" p47 Finite cannot assume the Infinite.. Mystery p53 Judaism likes to see things as dialectic.. tension of the middle [ie divine truth appears contradictory] p66 to stay God-conscious is also work.. discipline and repeated effort p71 hacham uses her brain, and the navi his heart, then the path of the hasid is through the hands and feet p72 We are professional mitzvah doers p75 prayer is l'hitpallel.. whisper, or say out loud.. conversation we have within ourselves p77 Prayer is also a conversation we have with a community of others, which we call "minyan" p79 not knowing what the words mean can often be an enhancement to true prayer.. turn off left-brain rational p80 Jewish tradition calls for both keva/fixed prayers.. and kavanah/intentionaility and spontaneity. It demands both p82 midnight..between time, almost unworldly p86 God has to be roused by our petitions, but that we have the power to do so p88 ego-centered..evil..distractions.. itch just when you are really.. invite the barriers to be part.. capitalize on the energy.. laugh at them.. Adon Olam prayer, "Into your hands, I place my spirit. I will not be afraid" p90 [meditation] block left-brain rational thinking so as to allow the mind to quiet itself.. in through the nose and out through the mouth.. phrase that can elevate.. God names are good for this p95 challenged to say a hundred blessings ever day.. pray three times a day p100 perceptive mechanisms point us outward.. have to see with our hearts p102 bending your will to that of the group can be very beneficial, especially in the realm of pryaer p113 go wherever the truth will lead me.. Even dissenting minority opinions were preserved p121 Studying with others forces us to listen, to open ourselves up to the truth of what the other is saying, to wait our turn, to weigh our words p131 behalf of others.. individual does not deem them to be such usually means that he or she is not God-focused p134 Jewish tradition that the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed because of senceless hatred.. just as easy to be nice as it is to be nasty and it feels so much better.. never to go to bed angry at another p136 When people are unhappy with their work, it is often because that work does not allow them to fulfill their true mission.. p138 Maimonides.. tzedakah.. anonymous giving to be at a higher level.. putting someone to work was actually the highest.. from the perspective of the recipient.. not the giver p153 Anytime we extend ourselves.. without concern for ourselves.. is a spiritual act.. taste of the infinite.. recognize the sacredness of all life p154 Relationships challenge our humanness.. deny ourselves.. trust, accept limits, make sacrifices, and live by our deeds and not just by our words.. p155 Each of us, even that annoying guy at work, has a spark of the divine within.. "..whoever destroys even one soul is regarded by the Torah as if s/he had destroyed an entire world; and whoever saves a soul, is regarded as if s/he had saved an eniter world" (Mishna Sanhedrin) p156 "love your neighbor as yourself.." Leviticus 19:19 p157 To covet is to dehumanize.. blinds us to the totality p158 Patience is about acceptance.. humility.. pay attention.. "thou shalt not curse the deaf, not put a stumbling block in front of the blind" [Leviticus 19:14].. excercise of power.. [those who trust us] p160 full humanity of the other..courtesies p161 clear boundaries.. not always easy.. Differing expectations can destroy the fabric of what the relationship ought to be about. p162 Boundary violations are dehumanizing..create confusion p163 stop blaming.. still feel [wrongly] that responsibility equals fault.. Responsibility begins, then, with the willingness to look at the possibility that I was a cause in the matter p164 "For sins against God the Day of Atonement atones. But for sins against another, the Day of Atonement does not atone, until one seeks and asks forgiveness from the one whom he offended" I read that every year on Yom Kippur. It is an accurate summary of the Jewish theology of forgiveness. p165 If we repeat the sin..still have work to do p173 make some space for the world to exist..voluntary contraction..tzimtzum.. p174 True love.. involves a loss of freedom, a loss of autonomy, and to some extent, a loss of self p184 Our children force us to examine and reexamine all of our defenses and reasons #@# Jews of Christ's Time (W D MOrrison, Putnams) 31Aug1890 Chicago Daily Sadducees controlled the priesthood and the measure of temporal as well as spiritual authority attached to it, while the Pharisees, who included the scribes, resembled the prophets in that they professed to be the expounders of the law.. Sadducees contended that the law was silent on the resurrection.. The existence of angels and evil spirits was also a matter of dispute.. Pharisees upheld it and the Sadducees opposed.. number of Jews outside of Palestine in the time of Christ must have been much greater than the Jewish population of Palestine itself #@# Eidelberg Judaic_Man ISBN0-391-03970-9 1996 p104 How different was Abraham, born thirty-eight centuries ago, in the year 1948 on the Hebrew calendar, the very year marking on the secular calendar, the rebirth of Israel. This first of the great scientific and philosophic minds rejected every form of idolatry, by which is meanth the belief that any physical entity, law, or process or for that matter any mental law or process, exists independenly of the Creator. I call such a belief "reification." Abraham understood then what exceedingly few people understand today (when quantum physics has excluded visualization from the compreliension of nature): not only that the Creator cannot be an object of sense-perception or of imagination, but that it is a desecration to represent Him in any form whatever. Insofar as we can know anything of HaShem - and it is only by His works - it is with the intellect and without the emotionalism that underlies religion and its surrogates, such as the worship of nature, secular humanism, or some utopian ideology. The man of Torah ridicules the emotions evoked by nature because he knows that nature has no necessary existence, that it endures solely by the Will of God. It is abhorent to Judaic man to worship any created thing, be it nature or humanity. The faith - really the certitude of Judaic man is not the result of the emotions. To the contrary, his faith abides despite his emotions, especially the emotions consequent upon twenty-five centuries of persecution, pogroms, and holocaust. If Judaism were based on the emotions the Jewish people would have perished long ago. To perfect the faculties of the Jewish people, the Torah provides a profound and comprehensive program of education involving sustained study and practice of the laws contained in the Pentateuch and explicated in the Mishna and Talmud. These are laws of life and living. They train the three primary agencies of the human soul, the emotions, volition, and intellect. Not that man's mental powers exist per se and the Torah appears afterwards to teach mankind how to live. Rather, the human faculties exist in order to make manifest the wisdom of the Torah. As will be seen later, the key objective of a Torah education is to secure the rule of the intellect over the imagination and affective agency of the soul - the desires and inclinations - the sources of reification which can hinder the Torah's world-historical goal of man, that of conquering nature. Without the Torah the intellect can provide mankind nothing worthy of abiding love and reverence. To love the creations of our own hands or minds without reference to the Creator is nothing but narcissism. Eventually, self-love turns into self-hatred. Insanity follows, and on a global scale. How different is the paradigm of Judaic man - so well-balanced, so thoroughly rational and humane.. #@# Jewish Customs, Bloch, Ktav 1980 p309 Talmud attributed the stringency of Tisha B'av to the multiple disasters which occured on that day.. commemoration of the loss of the Temple p312 forbidden to cut one's hair and to wash laundry during the week [proto-lent?] of Tisha B'av.. Wine and meat, according to tradition, generate lingering joy. Furthermore, wine and meat were part of the Temple's sacrificial rituals, which came to an end withthe loss of the Sanctuary. It was therefore considered proper to abstain from them close to the fast [lent as prep for fast].. There are five pleasurable acts which are prohibited on Tisha B'av: eating, washing, annointing, wearing if leather shoes, and marital intercourse #@# Jacobs, Holy Living: saints & saintliness in Judaism ISBN 0-87668-822-9 Aronson 1990 NJ p125 The whole question of intercession at the graves of the saints exercised the minds of the traditional halakhists. The main discussion centers on two talmudic passages. In one (Sotah 34b), it is said that Caleb prostrated himself on the graves of the patriarchs and said to them, "My fathers, pray on my behalf that I may be delivered from the plot of spies." In the other passages (Taamit 47a), it is said that on days of fasting people go out to the graves to ask the dead to pray on their behalf. Against this is the orohibition of necromancy (Deuteronomy 18:11). The general line adopted by the majority of halkhists is that since the saints are asked only to pray on behalf of the supplicants, the question of necromancy does not arise. [cit Ency Jud v7 p247] The Zohar (III,71a-71b), in fact, goes so far as to say that "inquiring of the dead" does not apply to the saints, since they are still alive #@# Grace, Punishment, and the Torah. Rosen, Jonathan American Scholar; Winter2002, Vol. 71 Issue 1, p61, 3p According to the rabbis of the Talmud, whoever forgoes retaliation has his sins remitted. The Bible itself is quite clear that revenge is a bad thing. Leviticus 19:18 decrees: "Thou shalt not take revenge or bear a grudge.".. But in Judaism, revenge is not particularly important. Justice is. That is at the heart of the notion of "an eye for an eye," which was a way of making sure the punishment was not disproportionate to the crime, a way of preventing revenge, a way of guarding against arbitrary retribution inflicted by enraged parties. It formalized punishment so that, as Leviticus states, "you shall have one manner of law" (Lev. xxiv. 22). The rabbis of the Talmud carried this notion even further by insisting that an eye for an eye is a metaphor and not a handbook for actual retribution.. The rabbis were so concerned with merciful justice that they imagined God himself praying that his mercy be greater than his justice. His full prayer is described this way: "May it be My will that My mercy may subdue My wrath; and may My mercy prevail over My attribute of justice, so that I may deal with My children in the quality of mercy and enter on their behalf within the line of strict justice" (Ber. 7a). A related passage describes God's day as follows: "During three hours of each day He sits and judges the whole world. When He sees that the world is deserving of being destroyed because of the prevalent evil, he arises from the throne of justice and sits upon the throne of mercy" (A.Z. 3b). This serves as a model for human behavior.. There are myriad rabbinic laws for putting sinners to death, but the rabbis tell us that a Sanhedrin--a tribunal of Temple times--that put an offender to death once every seven years was known as a "bloody Sanhedrin" (Makkot 7a). Having said as much, I should quickly add that the rabbis understood that failing to take action when it is required would constitute its own form of immorality. In the matter of war, for example, they felt that even the Sabbath could be broken, since war is a matter of life and death. And just two verses before we are told not to bear a grudge, Leviticus declares, "you shall not stand idly by the blood of your brother." This has nothing to do with revenge. It is, rather, a matter of justice. #@# Sacred Texts: A review of Interpreting the Bible and the Constitution by Jaroslav Pelikan By Christopher D. Levenick Winter 2005/06 Claremont Review of Books. Americans have long likened their Constitution to the Bible, an analogy usually intended to cultivate a reverence for the former by imbuing it with the sacred authority of the latter. George Washington, for instance, cherished the hope that "the free constitution" would "be sacredly maintained," while James Madison counseled his fellow citizens to look upon their national charters as "political scriptures" and to guard them "with a holy zeal" against "every attempt to add to or diminish from them.".. Christians read the Bible in light of the trinitarian and Christological doctrines promulgated by the early ecumenical councils, while Americans read the Constitution through the natural right principles enunciated in the Declaration of Independence.. give rise to the difficulty Pelikan calls a crux interpretum: a cluster of words and concepts so dense with significance as to engender multiple, possibly contradictory, readings.. a spirit unconstrained by the letter gives rise to its own gnostic tendencies. Justice William O. Douglas, no less than the second-century heresiarch Valentinus, claimed for himself a mysterious enlightenment, capable of discerning penumbral meanings invisibly emanating from the page.. Pelikan, however, retains an ambivalence about originalist assumptions and methods, arguing that they "run the constant danger of substituting pedantry for living experience." #@# New Light on the Torah, Jaroslav Pelikan is Sterling Professor Emeritus of History at Yale, The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary by Robert Alter, Summer 2005, Claremont Review of Books Greek translation carried out by the Jews of Alexandria a century or two before the Common Era, therefore many centuries before the fixing of the Masoretic Text, repeatedly manifests a reading of the Hebrew that diverges from our received text.. distinctiveness of Hebrew.. lends itself to puns. Some of these it is possible to imitate in English (as in Genesis 2:7--then the Lord God fashioned the human ('adam), humus ('adamah) from the soil.. "heresy of explanation," of which modern translators and commentators have frequently been guilty, easily "trivializes the grand solemnity and epic sweep" of Biblical narrative, and "betrays the monosyllabic plainness of the Hebrew" and other instances of "the oddness of the Hebrew" or "the ambiguity of the Hebrew" by resorting to "a single, indifferent level of diction" in English. That insistence on "representing" rather than "explaining" includes the imperative "to mirror the repetitions as much as is feasible." Where the Hebrew has "solemn, emphatic reiteration of refrainlike phrases and entire clauses," the translation should do the same.. Wading into all these thickets with confidence, Robert Alter can afford to be surprisingly candid with his readers about his translation as "somewhat speculative" in some passages, or "a reasonable educated guess," or "guesses and approximations.".. While quite severe in his criticism of "the modern English versions," which "have placed readers at a grotesque distance from the distinctive literary experience of the Bible in its original language" and "have shown a deaf ear to diction," Alter is respectful of "the King James Version, following the great model of Tyndale"--respectful but not deferential.. The division of the Ten Commandments that does not count the prohibition of images in Exodus 20:4-6 as a separate commandment and that therefore prohibits "coveting" twice seems to be regarded as characteristic of all Christian churches, although in fact most Protestants, Anglicans, and Eastern Orthodox follow the same division that Judaism does.. "There is, thankfully, no archeological evidence that this program of annihilation was ever implemented.".. He is especially thoughtful in describing what he aptly terms "the pervasive textualization of Jewish culture," the definition of "the text as the enduring source of authority," #@# Vox Graeca Guide Pronunc Classical Greek Wm Sydney Allen Cambrigde 3ed ISBN 0 521 33367 9 p67 On Indo-Greek coins of the 2 B.C. u is represented by i (e.g. Dianisiyasa - Diovusiou); but this does not necessarily mean that Greek [U"] had by then become [i] as in the modern language; it indicates only that Indo-Aryan had no rounded front vowe, and so rendered it by the equivalent unrounded vowel. This conclusion is also supported by the Latin evidence; in early borrowings and transcriptions from Greek, Latin speakers wrote and pronounced u (i.e. the equivalent back vowel) for Gree u, as in e.g. Ennius' 'Burrus' for Purros 9cf VL, p52); but with the spread of Greek knowledge, the Greek pronounciation and letter came to be adopted, at least in educated circles - hence eg hymnus, Olympia. Clearly, whilst the Greek sound was not [u], neither was it [i]; and there are references in Latin writer to its non-existence in native Latin words: thus eg Cicero, Or 160 and Quintilian xii 10 27 p78 Fig 3 Approximate chrnological development of Attic long vowels and 'short' diphthongs (excluding pre-vocalic position) pre-5c. 5c 4c 3c 2c 1c BC AD 1c 2c 3c Modern _ _ a a a _ _ i i _ i _ _ " u u - u i _ _ _ n e e i i , _ . ei e i i _ . w o o , _ _ ou o - u u . _ ai ai e e , au au av eu eu _ _ ev " " " oi oi - (?oi) (?o) u i 1 pp177-9 excerpts of "Summary of Recommended Pronounciations" alpha-iota As in English high alpha-ypsilon As in English how beta As English b gamma (1) As English 'hard' g (2) Before kappa, chi, gamma, mu: as n in English ink or ng in song delta As French d epsilon As in English pet epsilon-iota As in German Beet zeta [zd] As in English wisdom eta As in French tete theta As t in English top omikron-iota As in English boy, coin ypsilon As in French lune, ruse chi As c in English cat omega As in English saw #@# SEPTUAGINT LAMENTATIONS GREEK HEBREW INTERPRONOUNCIATION A /\ E Q ALEPH B H 8 VEETH F I M E /\ YIMEL D A /\ E 8 DTHALETH H EE O Y A Y OUAV Z A I N ZAEN H 8 EETH T H 8 TEETH I W D IOHDTH X A Q HAPH /\ A M E D LAMEDTH M H M MEEM N O Y N NOON S A M E X SAMEKH A I N AEN Q H FEE T S A D H TSADTHEE (CHATHIE) K W Q KOHF P H X S REEKHS X S E N KHSEN 8 A Y THAV #@# Pronounciation of Greek and Latin Edgar Sturtevant (Yale) 1920..1940 LingSocAm UP 1940 p41 s32 fig5 [i*] [e*] [ei] [e*] [a*] 500 BC i e ei n 400 BC i ei n 200 BC i,ei ei n 1 BC i,ei ei,n 400 AD i,ei,n p46s42 fig 6 [oh] [ou] [o*] [u*] [y] Before 500 BC o ou o u 500-350 o,w ou,o u After 350 w ou u #@# Warren Treadgold, Hist_Byz_State&Society, sup.org 1997 ISBN0-8047-2630-2 LC97-23492 [son of fam Salvicist?] pp xviii-xix Byzantium shaped and passed on Christian, Roman, and Greek traditions, including Christian theology, Roman law, and the Greek classics.. most powerful influence on Russia.. conservative, religious and not very materialistic.. else has matched it in maintaining a single state and society for so long, over a wide area inhabited by heterogeneous peoples p30 Noticing that the church hierarchy was a source of Christian strength, Maximin imitated it by naming pagan high priests for each province and chief priests for each city p121 Christianity, by contrast, flatly repudiated the old gods, insisting that they were not only inferior spirits but evil ones as well.. condemned fornication, adultery, homosexual acts, gladiatorial combat, abortion, and infanticide p126 Christian tradition strongly condemned killing, and had not agreed on exceptions for war, police action, or execution.. eastern position, as defined by Basil of Caesarea, was that those who killed, even in just cause, should do penance and abstain from communion for three years. The western view, professed by Saint Ambrose and Saint Augustine, drew a sharper distinction between justified and unjustified killing, and generally condoned the former p135-6 Despite the efforts of the emperors to look like absolute rulers, they were in practice nothing of the sort, and the ideology of a Christian empire would not allow them to be.. tolerate some misrule, but not the unbridled tyranny of a Nero or a Commodus. In exchange, if the emperor was a reasonably decent man, Christian public opinion helped restrain those who might want to overthrow him.. "Greek" (Hellen) was coming to mean a pagan rather than a person of Greek race or culture. Instead, the usual word for an eastern Greek had begun to be "Roman" (Rhomaios), which we moderns may render as "Byzantine" p198 [542] Jacob Baradaeus, made it his mission to revivify Monophytism within the empire.. dressed as a beggar to elude government officials.. willing to use Syriac and Coptic in the Mass p221 [571] momentary triumph of common sence, Justin's Chalcedonians and Jacob's Monophysites admitted that they held the same beliefs and merely expressed them differently p257 Justinian gave bishops jurisdiction over many civil cases in their courts, and in some cases precedence over governors p280 The economic expansion seems to help explain the increased frequency of social disorder, including religious and factional rioting. Such riots had happened before, but had seldom been so sever as they became after the mid-fifth century, when many cities had large groups of young men with leisure to devote to sports, shows, carousing, crime, and following their own fashions. The gangs of Blues and Greens, who cut their hair like Huns, wore expensive and outlandish clothes in their colors, and went about armed, were only the most conspicuous of these rowdies p307 It might well have failed against the Arabs as they were by 641. They still had all the fierceness of nomads, like the Germans, Huns, and Avars who had often defeated the empire but had been too divided and disorganized to destroy its eastern part. With the foundation of the caliphate, the Arabs had gained both cohesion and organization, like the Persians who had recently come so close to destroying the empire. This combination was fearsome, especially when joined to religious fervor, and neither the Byzantines nor anyone else had yet learned how to slow its progress, let alone how to stop it p365 silenced all iconophile opposition. His loyal strategi spread his persecution of monks through all but the border areas... Lachanodracon.. eradicated monasticism within his theme p392 Feeling against execution was so strong that emperors punished even most of their political opponents only by mutilating them p410 Western feudalism, which entirely substituted grants of land for cash payments, was a more extreme form of the same solution. Byzantium at least managed to maintain some payments to its soldiers, some control over their supplies, and fairly tight control over the highest officers p417 Yet Irene, an orphan in her mid-twenties from the shrunken provincial town of Athens, had been keen political instincts, a strong will, and some devoted allies in the bureaucracy. The precariousness of her position seems to have given her a sence of urgency p423 pope argued that a woman was ineligible to be emperor, so that Charlemagne was simply filling a vacancy p428 [809, Nicephorus] Before long the settlers turned most of Greece from a Slavonic-speaking land into a Greek-speaking one p454 [866] In frustration over Bulgaria's defection to the papacy, Photius held a council in late summer that declared Pope Nicholas deposed on the grounds that various western church practices of long standing were heretical. These included fasting on Saturdays, using unleavened bread in the Eucharist, and excluding married men from the priesthood. Photius particularly condemned the filioque p482 During the five years since the great famine, they had concentrated much more land.. edict in 934, specifying that lands purchased illegally since 928 must be returned to the sellers p493 As the empire's prestige grew, the Russian princess Olga, Igor's widow and regent for her young son Svyatoslav, visited Constantinople. She was baptized under the name of Helena by the patriarch Polyeuctus, and though she failed to convert her whole country she built up a Russia church of some size p517 In desperation he appealed to the Russian prince Vladimir of Kiev, the only neighboring ruler who seemed strong enough to make a difference. Basil's lure was the hand of his sister Anna p528 Bulgaria, the only power in the Balkans that rivaled Byzantium, had utterly collapsed. From Castoria the emperor made his way overland to Athens, where he gave thanks for his victory in the Parthenon, in its Byzantine form as a church dedicated to the Virgin p534 eighth and eleventh centuries the empire made a recovery unparalleled in history.. society became if anything more unified p538 Every emperor from Michael II to Basil II would have liked to drive the Arabs from Sicily p542 Though all the Christian client rulers held Byzantine ranks and could use Byzantine seals on their documents, such privileges were mere honors, shared by Byzantine allies like Russia p553 Iconoclasm left most ordinary priests discredited for accepting it, while the new hierarchy, largely composed of monks, was inexperienced p574 trade was regarded with suspicion.. taxed merchants strictly.. had to be enrolled in a guild p596 [1054] insisted on traditional Byzantine practices in churches throughout the empire, especially in Armenia, where unleavened bread had long been used in the Eucharist as it was in the West. Exasperated by the patriarch's intrasignance, the papal legates excommunicated him. While the emperor tried to calm the dispute, demonstrations in the capital supported the patriarch, who excommunicated the legates. These personal condemnations did not end all communion between the eastern and western churches, but they ruined the emperor's alliance with the papacy and raised intractable issues p598 strictly speaking Isaac Comnenus was the first usurper to take power in more than two centuries p600 In 1060 the Normans took Rhegium and Tarentum, reducing Byzantine Italy to little more than the coast around Bari.. new sultan's main interest was in Muslim Syria, his Turks wanted to exploit the vulnerability of Byzantine Armenia and Asia Minor p614 Sulayman began to call himself sultan of Rum.. Alexius begged for help from Venice, from disaffected Normans, and from the German emperor Henry IV, who was an enenmy of the Norman's ally Pope Gregory VII p628 Alexius left the empire stronger than he found it.. While some Crusaders and military officers certainly did want to overthrow him, cautious cooperation with them would probably have reduced that danger, and might even have let him retake most of Asia Minor before the Turks made it fully their own p637 held was a wasteland {devegetated by Turkish goats}, and their Greek population was by now accustomed to Turkish rule. So John gave priority to subduing rebels, including the Crusaders who kept Antioch in defiance p647 Pope Alexander even considered withdrawing recognition from the German.. 1166 he held a council in Constantinople that rebuffed Byzantine critics of western theology.. offered to name Alexander to the vacant patriarchate of Constantinople.. pope shrank from the drastic p663 deposition seemed shocking to westerners unfamiliar with Byzantine politics, since in the West rulers were almost never overthrown.. {vjp2:Magna Carta plagiarised Byzantine governance when Crusaders returned} pope sent his own protest [to Crusader support of the pro-papal unusurper Alexius who the Byzantines again overthrew], to no avail p666 Within a few days the Crusaders breached the sea walls and set a fire that spread through the city.. emperors beginning with Manuel Comnenus had alienated the Venetians, the rulers of Germany, and many other westerners.. p669 nomadic herders with no real homes or rulers.. Turkmen particularly infested the border.. liked booty, particularly livestock and could penetrate almost anywhere in Byzantine Anatolia p673 The Pontus, despite having a Greek majority, was almost as insubordinate as Cilicia. But its less exposed position made it more peaceful, and its trade with the East may have made it somewhat richer. During most of the period from 1075 to 1140 local magnates from the Gabras family were its virtual rulers, sometimes as Byzantine governors, sometimes as rebels allied with the Danishmendids. When Constantinople fell in April 1204, two grandsons of Andronicus I, Alexius and David Comnenus, were already conquering the Pontus with the help of their aunt, the Georgian queen Tamara. While this Alexius claimed the title of Byzantine emperor, his new realm is usually called, after its capital, the Empire of Trebizond. Soon it took over what remained of the Byzantine Crimea, which had probably become independent from Constantinople bt 1198. Alexius and David Comnenus of Trebizond also had designs on Paphlagonia, where their family had its ancestral estates and their grandfather had launched his successful revolt p680 Pronoia grants covered revenues rather than the land itself, were at this stage not heritable, and formed incidental parts of a traditional state system rather than a parallel system of essentially personal obligations p686 Monasteries began to be founded with the stipulation that they should be administered only by their abbots, subject neither to charistike nor to interference from lay founders, bishops, or even the patriarch p711 After first welcoming the Latin capture of Constantinople as a means of reuniting the Church, Pope Innocent discovered how brutal the conquest had been and condemned the sack of the city and the Crusaders' plundering of Byzantine church property p733-4 all the Latin army and Venetian fleet were away from Constantinople, making a surprise attack on the Nicene island of Daphnusia.. Latin Emperor Baldwin fled by boat. When the Venetians tried to resist, Alexius burned their commercial quarter.. pp764-71 Hesychasm, a belief among Athonite monks that by repeating a short prayer, bowing their heads, and holding their breath {actually regulating their breath according to the Philokalia Jesus Prayer} they could see the light surrounding God himself.. At the news of Andronicus' death, Turkish pirates from Saruhan attacked the Thracian coast, Dushan of Serbia advanced on Thessalonica, the Albanians around Berat revolted, and the emperor John Alexander of Bulgaria threatened to invade... Acindynus's concern was less with Hesychasm than with Palamas's insistence on the superiority of mystical knowledge to philosophical argument.. empress, whose right to rule seemed clearest, dismissed Cantacuzenus as grand domestic.. Cantacuzenus, then at Didymotichus had himself proclaimed emperor.. Dushan was obvioulsy a dangerous ally.. At Didymotichus Irene Cantacuzena held out only with help from the Bulgarians, who also wanted to prolong the civil war, and from Cantacuzenus's friend Umur of Aydin {Palamas befriended and wanted to convert the Turks}, who sailed up the Hebrus but left when the winter greww too cold for him.. [empress] personally submitted to papal authority. Since the Palamites tended to favor Cantacuzenus and to oppose westerners, the empress and her patriarch turned against Palamism.. emperor, not just of the Serbs but of the Romans. In spring 1346 Dushan had himself crowned at Scopia by the archbishop of Pech, whom he promoted to patriarch for the occasion. Alexander of Bulgaria likewise assumed the title of emperor of the Bulgarians and Greeks.. let in their leader and a thousand of his men through a tunnel.. Anna agreed that Cantacuzenus should rule for ten years as senior emperor.. councils condemned the patriarch John Calecas, rehabilitated Gregory Palamas.. opponents were widely suspected of preferring philosophy to faith and the western church to the eastern, positions few Byzantines could condone p776 Ottoman occupation of Callipolis confirmed many Byzantines' worst fears about John VI's reliance on the Turks p781-3 Venetians and Genoese made peace by agreeing to turn Tenedos into a wasteland, belonging to no one. During this miserable family war, the Ottomans occupied even more of the central Balkans, which had become a welter of Serbian, Bulgarian and Albanian fiefdoms.. sultan himself was among the dead, and the Serbs have celebrated their valor in the battle of Kosovo ever since. Nevertheless, the Turks finally drove them from the field with crippling losses.. John V's reign as senior emperor justified in retrospect the Cantacuzenists who had fought to prevent it.. John let his army and navy decay, and squandered his last asset, Byzantine prestige, on ill-conceived apeals to the papacy, to Hungary, and to Venice p790 Ottoman Sultanate was not only smaller but split between Sulayman in the Balkans and his brothers in Anatolia. Yet the empire was itself divided into Manuel's coastal strips around Constantinople, John's coastlands around Thessalonica, and Theodore's Peloponnesus, each of which was essentially independent of the others. Sulayman held the territory between them and most of their hinterlands in Bulgaria, Thrace and Thessaly. He also kept contact with Anatolia through Callipolis. As the sultan had doubtless expected, Manuel's empire was a facade, with barely the resources to maintain itself p794-5 Among them were the patriarch of Constantinople Joseph II, the archbishop of Nicea Bessarion, representatives of the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, and bishops from Trebizond, Georgia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, and a second Vlach principality, Moldavia. Archbishop Isidore of Kiev, a Greek from Byzantium, came by land from Russia. Traveling by way of Venice, they all arrived in Ferrara the following spring.. continued into 1439 when it moved from Ferrara to Florence.. usually by an agreement to tolerate existing differences.. Although the patriarch Joseph died shortly before the proclamation of union, he left a written statement endorsng it. The emperor and all but two eastern delegates subscribed to it. The pope promised to organise a crusade the next year, and made Besarion of Nicea and Isidore of Kiev cardinals.. opponents found a leader in one of the two delegates who had rejected it, Archbishop Mark of Ephesus. Some other delegates who had subscribed at Florence disowned.. patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem all repudiated p799 The pope sent Cardinal Isidore of Kiev, who brought two hundred soldiers from Naples. But the pope insisted that Constantine proclaim the Union of Florence and reinstate the unionist patriarch Gregory.. reluctant to defy the antinunionists, the emperor felt unable to defy the papacy when western help was so desperately needed. He therefore had the Union of Florence proclaimed p800 As the enemy swarmed into the city, most of the Italians escaped in their ships, but almost all the Byzantine soldiers fought to their death, the emperor Constantine among them.. sultan freed a few others, but executed the highest Byzantine officials.. Preserving Saint Sophia for use as a mosque, he chose a new patriarch, Gennadius Scholarius, a former delegate to the Council of Florence who had become the leading antiunionist.. reinforcements from the West could have done no more that delay the city's fall by a few months pp824-5 Given that many eastern Christians would resist church union on any terms whatever, concluding such a union threatened the authority not only of the emperor but also of the patriarch of Constantinople. With the disappearance of the emperors of Bulgaria and Serbia, the Bulgarian and Serbian patriarchates lapsed, and the patriarchate of Constantinople again gained jurisdiction over the whole former Byzantine world - if he could keep it. Most of the Slavs and Greeks outside the empire, many already ruled by the sultan, were ready to break with Constantinople rather than accept any union with the western church.. allowed their Greek subjects to remain in communion with the patriarch.. limited the number of churches and bishops.. power grew, they saw a chance of extinguishing Christianity altogether in Asia Minor. In the Balkans, where this seemed impossible, the sultans found bishops useful as a means of controlling pp851-3 The only large region with a clear majority of Greek speakers was Greece south of Thessalonica, including the Agean islands, Crete and Cyprus. However, most regions that had been predominantly Greek-speaking at the beginning of the Byzantine period still had Greek-speaking minorities of some size. These included northern Greece, Thrace, most of the Anatolian coast, a few pockets and towns in the Anatolian interior, and even two enclaves in southern Italy.. Since in the First World War the Greeks were hesitantly aligned with the winning side, while Turkey and Bulgaria were losers, in 1920 Greece was able to annex all of Thrace but Constantinople itself, which though nominally Turkish was occupied jointly by the British and French. Woodrow Wilson assigned Trebizond to a newly independent Christian Armenia. The fairest and simplest boundary that could have been drawn between Greece and Turkey would probably have been at the straits, since it would have left about as many Greek speakers in Turkey as Turkish speakers in Greece.. Turkey deported some 1.3 million mostly Greek-speaking Christians to Greece, in exchange for some 300,000 mostly Turkish-speaking Muslims from Greek territory #@# H A Gribb Mohammedanism Cumberledge (Oxford '49 '54) p31 " And whether or not the story be true that in 628 [Muhammad] he sent summonses to the Roman Emperor, the Persian King of Kings and other ruling princes, he was certainly contemplating some action against the Byzantine power in the north before his death in 632." #@# 7Essays on Christian Greece, Demetrios Bikelas, Garnder, Paisley, 1890 [repr Scottish_Review] p14 This Legitimist sentiment, so marked by the New Rome, was certainly not derived from the Old.. in England the scrupulous retention of certain old-world official customs.. ridiculous in the eyes of foreigners, is accompanied by the most perfect excercise of liberty p34 Asiatic.. intense passion of religious hatred.. Latin Christianity seemed about to emigrate bodily into Asia for the purpose of rescuing the Holy Sepulchre.. hereditary nomad instinct.. barbarian hordes which had convulsed and colonized Europe some five or six centuries previously p39 [Luke Notaras] "Better a Turk's turban that a Cardinal's hat".. 1016, a Norman army poured into Italy and seized the provinces still ruled by the Eastern Empire.. captured Corfu and harried the mainland.. Meanwhile the same race conquered England p61 some few of the Emperors married Athenian women, they were themselves by origin all either Thracians, or Armenians, or Isaurians, or Cappadocians; there was not a single Athenian or Spartan among them, or one spring from any other purely Hellenic stock p63 [quotes Finlay] "The authority exercised by the Senate, the powers possessed by the Synods and General Councils of the Church, and the importance often attached by the Emperors to the ratification of their laws by silentia and popular assemblies, mark a change in the Byzantine Empire, in strong contrast with the earlier military Empire of the Romans.. power.. transferred from the army to the laws.. humanity.. visible in the mild treatment of many unsuccessful usurpers and dethroned Emperors.. [coronation oath, Kodinos, de Officiis cap xvii] to abide and perpetually be found a faithful and sincere servant and son of Holy Church, and moreover her defender and avenger.. abstain from bloodshed.. [.].. many of the worst Emperors were deposed by popular indignation p65 [M A Rambaud "Le Monde Byzantine et l'Hippodrome" Rvu Deux Mondes, 15AUG1871 - at the Hippodrome] Byzantine people made and unmade Emperors; there that justice was administered and the guilty punished, and that triumphs were celebrated over barbarians and rebels; there that the masses grazed upon wonders of art and of nature p72-3 [Montrevil says] The Greeks are by their very nature philosophical or speculative. The search for abstract truth is to them more attractive than the pursuit of reforms or the regulation of manners. They are a race eminently literary. They have always been thinkers rather than statesmen. They seized accordingly upon that side of Theology which most appealed to their natural genius. The heresies which arose among them were begotten by the same spirit.. proclivity towards idealism p74 It was the Byzantine Empire also which resisted the very first political pretensions of the Popes p77 Iconoclastic persecution.. mainly responsible for the separation of Central Italy from the other domains of the Empire #@# Byzantine Christianity, Magoulias, Rand McNally 1970 p16 councils of bishops were regarded as a kind of ecclesiastical senate, and the same procedure was applied to them.. But the views of the majority of both clergy and laity could not be defied by even the most authoritarian emperor, and more than once the will of the people overturned the decisions reached by the bishops p98 Charlemagne's.. court poets even referred to Aix-la-Chapelle as "New Rome"! pp103-4 Liutprand of Cremona writes in his Chronicle of Otto's Reign: "Pope John is the enemy of all things.. palace of the Lateran, that once sheltered saints and is now a harlot's brothel.. John a little time ago took women pilgrims by force to his bed, wives, widows and virgins alike.." At this time of the "papal pornocracy" and general malaise in Western monastic life, which reflected the need of reform in the Latin church, the holiness of life in the Greek monasteries was greatly admired p109 Byzantine religion, diplomacy, food, and drink, manneres, ceremonial, etiquette and official splendor, as a matter of policy and personal simplicity, went against the mores and customs evolved in the Germanized West #@# Obolensky [Oxford], ByzCommonwealth, svots.edu 1982 orig Weidenfield 1971 ISBN 0-913836-98-2 pp22-3 No records have survived to tell us what happened to the autochthonous inhabitants, Illyrians and Thracians, who managed to survive this destructive flood. Some of these natives, partly or wholly Romanized, probably retreated before the Slavs into the mountains. In tenth and eleventh century documents two peoples make their first appearance in the Balkan peninsula: the Vlakhs and the Albanians. Their origin has been the subject of much controversy. `Most scholars today regard the Vlakhs as the descendants of the semi-Romanized.. Middle Ages they emerged as nomadic, Romance-speaking shepherds from their mountain retreats, from the Haemus, the Rhodopes and the Pindus, and descended into the lowlands of Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly.. Probably descended from the ancient Illyrians, the Albanians are believed to have retreated before the Slav invaders into the highlands which they still occupy... sudddenly in the fourteenth century, the Albanians began to descend from their mountainous homeland; in a great movement of expansion which has been compared in its scope and impetus to the earlier Slav invasions, they spread eastward and southward. By the following century we find them thick on the ground, in Thessaly, Attica, Boetia, Euboea and Peloponnese, colonizing and farming the countryside, moving as nomadic shepherds across the land, or serving as soldiers in the armies of the local Greek and Frankish lords. It is not surprising that the mountains of the Balkan peninsula in many ages provided refuge for dissident and freedom-loving minorities who have sought to resist the empire builders of the plains. In a Greek folk-song glorifying the military deeds of the klephts, the irregular fighters against the Turks, the proud boast that the mountain is the stronghold of liberty is uttered by Mount Olympus p37 devastations caused by the Avaro-Slav invasions: for two and a half centuries after the death of the Emperor Maurice (602) not a single Balkan city north of Serdica is so much as mentioned in contemporary documents. And when, in the ninth century, the darkness begins to lift from the peninsula the Roman place names have mostly vanished, superseded or transformed by a new Slav nomenclature p80-3 Isidore of Seville could write with scarcely any exaggeration that at the beginning of Heraclius' reign "the Slavs took Greece from the Romans".. Porphyrogenitus, writing soon after 934 and describing the Peloponnese, states that after the great plague of 746-7 "the whole country was Slavicized and became barbarian".. Sklaviniae designated areas occupied by the Slavs, over which Byzantium had lost all effective control but which had acquired no alternative form of central administration.. Chronicle of Monemvasia.. Peloponnesian Slavs were, it states, "subject neither to the emperor of the Romans nor to anyone else" p86 medieval Arab geographers and of King Alfred of England; most modern historians, while recognizing that it contains legendary features, regard Constantine's account [ditto Clavdios Ptolemaios 200AD] of the migrations of the Croats and the Serbs to the Balkans as substantially true. The ethnic origin of the Croats and the Serbs has also provoked some scholarly controversy.. last wave of the Slavonic invasions of the Balkans, or as alien people, possibly of Caucasian origin [ditto Rus/Scyth/Magog], they were absorbed in the course of time by the Slav who had preceded p90-2 "Old Great Bulgaria", undoubtedly built with East Roman support, and extending from the Caucasus to the Don and probably as far as the lower Dnieper.. broke up under the blows of a new invader from Asia, the Khazars, who struck westward from the lower Volga.. Bulgars advanced to the neighborhood of Varna and occupied the Dobrudja.. new home in the Balkans had, during the past eighty years or so, been colonized by the Slavs.. Moesian Slavs were subjugated by Asparuch's horde.. Byzantine writers continued to differentiate between Bulgar and Slav inhabitants of this realm. But the assimilation of the Turkic Bulgars by the far more numerous Slavonic population p102-3 Theophilus restored the university of Constantinople and appointed as its principal teacher the celebrated scholar Leo the Mathematician.. revival of classical studies and the prestige of secular learning, already apparent in Theophilus' reign, gathered strength after the defeat of Iconoclasm p106 Byzantine writers considered that the defeat of the Slavs at Patras marked the end of the Slav occupation of the Peloponnese. This was an over-optimistic view, for the Peloponnesian Slavs revolted again several times; and on the slopes of Mount Taygetus Slav tribes retained until the Turkish conquest of the fifteenth century their language, their ethnic identity, and a tradition of insubordination to the imperial government p112 Orthodox Christianity as a means of achieving cultural assimilation of the Slavs was enhanced, in the Balkan provinces of the empire, by the deliberate use of Greek as a liturgical language. [Ignatiev's Phyletism rears its ugly head again] By contrast with the Slav lands that lay beyond the empire's borders, where, through a combination of linguistic tolerance and tactful diplomacy, the Byzantines encouraged the propogation of Christianity in the Slavonic vernacular [compare to Germans worshipping in Latin], their policy at home was Hellenization through Christianization. In the Slavonic lands now reintegrated into the framework of the Byzantine provincial administration, Greek was not only the idiom of the church but the language of a civil service, of the armed forces and of polite society.. claim made in the 1830s by the German scholar Fallmarayer that the Greeks of today are predominantly of Slav and Albanian stock [compare ancient statues to modern Greeeks; cf Robert Byron, Byz_Achievement] p165 Bogomilsim.. considered primarily as an example - the most strikingly successful in the whole of the Middle Ages - of a spontaneous and popular movement of resistance to the patterns of Byzantine culture which were imposed upon their subjects [Marxist theories debunked JonesJTS59].. fought Byzantine Christianity on its own ground and with its own weapons.. preached a cosmological dualism.. recognized that the Devil is inferior to and ultimately dependent on God [rel: Gnostic, Manichean, Mazdaist, Zoroastrian] pp210-1 influences of the Byzantine and the German empires, met and were fairly evenly balanced.. 1004 Hungarian troops helped the Byzantines to capture Skopjle from Samuel. Despite his recognition of papal authority, Byzantine Christianity held a strong appeal for Stephen.. influence of these monasteries. The veneration of Greek saints was widespread.. Crown of Constantine Monomachus; its fragments, which were found in Hungary during the last century by a peasant ploughing [Hilferding, out to canonise Jan Hus?] p224-5 [568-76 Turk-Byz alliance] artless candour and simple moral values of their nomadic dupes.. sixth century Turks adorned their Central Asian capital with a luxury that surprised even the Byzantine ambassadors; yet they were capable of rejecting what they regarded as the evils of civilization.. sheer distance between Constantinople and Central Asia made the exchange of embassies a strenuous and costly business.. Turkish alliance would have almost certainly involved the Byzantines in a war on two fronts - against the Avars in Europe and the Persians in Asia.. Byzantines missed something of an opportunity.. By the second half of the sixth century, Christianity, admittedly in Nestorian garb, had made many converts in several regions of the Turkish Empire, notably in Khorasan, Afghanisan and the area round Bokhara and Samarkand.. when the Byzantines and the Turks next met each other face to face it was on the eleventh century battle-fields of Asia Minor p231 730-40, when some Jewish beliefs are said to have been adopted by the Khagan Bulan.. conversion of the ruling circles of Khazaria to Judaism took place in gradual stages, and that their final acceptance of Mosaic law was delayed until the second half of the ninth century. In preferring the Jewish religion both to Christianity and to Islam, they were probably moved by the desire to remain politically and culturally independent both of Byzantium and of the Arab Khalifate. The failure to convert the Khazars to Christianity did not substantially affect the friendly relations between Byzantium p234 Patriarch Photius, in a letter to the archbishop of Bosporus, expresed with characteristic regard for the niceties of language [resent? cf Redfield p65] his gratification at the thought that the Black Sea, formerly so inhospitable (axeinos), was now becoming not merely hospitable (euxinos), but also pious (eusebes) p238-41 Swedish Vikings, or Varangians, who used the Volga and later the Dnieper for their trading expeditions.. Russian Primary Chronicle, the earliest native historical source, compiled in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries.. middle of the ninth century a group of Varangians from Scandinavia seized control over the cities of northern Russia, thus conquering a territory, inhabited by Slav and Finnic tribes, which stretched from Lake Ladoga and Beloozero to the middle course of the Western Dvina and to the lower Oka. According to the chronicle they were led by three brothers, of whom the eldest, Ryurik, established himself in Novgorod. The second stage was achieved soon after, when two Viking earls, Askold and Dir, sailed down the Dnieper and captured Kiev from the Khazars. Finally, about 882, Oleg, a relative of Ryurik, incorporated Novgorod and Kiev within a single realm, thus completing the politics unification of the greater fart of the Baltic-Black Sea river route, from the Gulf of Finland to a point on the Dnieper some hundred miles north of the rapids.. people of Gog and Magog who, as everyone knew, had been enclosed in the Caucasian mountains by Alexander the Great. Had not Ezekiel prophesied their invasion from the north? These words of his were much quoted in Constantinople during the summer of 860: "And the word of the Lord came unto me, saying: Son of man, set they face against Gog and the land of Magog, the prince of Rosh [Rus!] (Ez. XXXVIII, 1-2, Septuagint version) [Obolensky views Magog as positive while most westerns see them as end-time evil. Great Alex chased them up Cavcas.] p271 Vlachs [diff spell p22] , whose Romance dialect.. eleventh and twelfth centuries in much the same guise as today: transhumant shepherds, moving their flocks od sheep and goats between their winter settlements in th eplain of Thessaly and their summer pastures in the Pindus and Grammos [Grammos is the highest peak of the Pindus Alps] Mountains. Their seasonable migrations are later attested in other parts of the Balkan peninsula. The Byzantines knew them mostly for their incurable insubordination: the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela [cit tr N W Adler, London 1907, p11], who visited Greece in the second half of the twelfth century, describes the Vlachs of Thessaly as follows: "They are as swift as hinds, and they sweep down from the mountains to despoil and ravage the land of Greece. No man can go up and do battle against them, and no king can rule over them... They are altogether lawless" p274 The Byzantization of the Slavs in Greece was now virtually complete. Only in the remoter areas of the Southern Peloponnese did Slav tribes retain their language and their sence of ethnic distinction until the end of the Middle Ages: these recalcitrants were the Melingoi, on the slopes of the Taygetus Mountains, and the Ezeritai, who lived on the northern and eastern coast of the Gulf of Laconia, from Gytheion to Vatika Bay near Cape Malea. Both tribes revolted several times against Byzantine rule, and in the second half of the thirteenth sentury were granted local autonomy and the right of bearing arms. But this was an exception [vs Biddle on Maniates] p281-2 renounced their independence to become the tenants or serfs of some territorial magnate no doubt regarded their new status, which at least preserved them from starvation.. pronoiarioi must have often appeared as alien exploiters.. anti-Byzantine sentiments were exploited [vs JonesJTS59] by the dualist heretics in Bulgaria, the Bogomils and the [Cathar-] Paulicians.. Bogomils [Bosnian mulsims claim decent from them] preached a doctrine of civil disobedience.. social anarchism.. revolt, allied with the Pecheneg and Cuman p298-9 Andrew Bogolyubsky, the powerful prince of Vladimir in North-East Russia (1157-74), whose autocratic behaviour resembles more closely the policy of the future Muscovite rulers than that of his Kievan predecessors.. Cumans (whom the Russians called the Polovtsy), became during the next few years masters of the steppe.. even greater menace to Kievan Russia than the Pechenegs.. virtual severance of the lower Dnieper route by the Cumans imperilled Kiev's links with Byzantium.. retreat step by step from the fringes of the steppe towards the remoter forest areas. By the 1140s Kiev had begun to yield its political and economic dominance in Russia p301 Manuel I's diplomacy had consolidated Byzantium's political influence over the more important Russian principalities.. obligation assumed by Russian princes to supply troops for the Byzantine armies p302 [Nicetas Choniates ca 1200] acknowledged that the salvation of Byzantium was due on this occasion to "the most Christian nation of the Russians" whose "God-mustered phalanx" relieved the [Cuman] pressure on the imperial capital.. demonstrated their loyalty to the empire only a few years after the Bulgarians and the Serbs had rebelled against it p311 capture of Kiev in 1240, made the country a political dependency of the Tatar khans of the Golden Horde. The next 240 years the princes of Central and Northern Russia paid tribute to and ruled by the grace of the sovereign of a Turko-Mongol empire whose capital was on the lower Volga.. And yet, however much the political links between the different parts of the commonwealth were loosened in the thirteenth century, neither the Fourth Crusade nor the Mongol conquest of Russia was able to break them completely p312 Nor were the Serbs slow to realize that the decline of Byzantine power required a rapprochement with the West.. divorced his Byzantine bride, the emperor's daughter; he later married the grandaughter of Enrico Dandolo, the formidable Doge of Venice who, more than any other leader of the Fourth Crusade, was responsible for the sack of Constantinople.. Daniel, prince of Galicia and Volynia [Yuschenko territory, "Polish" Ukraine], offered to acknowldege papal supremacy. In 1253 he was crowned king with a crown sent by Innocent IV. The failure of the [promised anti-Tatar] crusade to materialize, and the reimposition of Tatar control over Daniel's lands ended this shortlived attempt to bring Western Russia into the orbit of Latin p313 The Byzantine patriarchate, the traditional guardian of Orthodoxy, had been expelled from Constantinople; but it had found refuge in Nicaea, whose rulers regarded themselves as the lawful successors of the emperors of Byzantium.. Nicean period (1204-61) that these three [Bg Sb Ru] nations obtained ecclesiatical priveleges which in different degrees increased the autonomy of their respective churches.. extorted through diplomatic pressure from a weakened empire in exile p327 By the second half of the eleventh century, in place of the free peasant-soldier commune [puhlease, what next, a Khazar kibutz?], two types of land holding had become prevalent in the Byzantine Empire: on the one hand the large hereditary estate of the civil or military magnate and, on the other, crown property handed out to eminent Byzantines or foreigners to administer, usually in return for military service, free of state taxation. The latter system was called pronoia (literally, "care").. differed from a land grant of the first type in that it was held for a limited time, usually until the recipient's death, and was, until the second half of the thirteenth century, inalienable. From the time of Michael VII, however, pronoiarioi were allowed to bequeath p339 1380, when the Russian troops commanded by Dimitri, prince of Moscow, defeated a large Tatar army at Kulikovo p340 should he reside in the historic see of Kiev, which from about 1362 was on Lithuanian territory, or in Moscow?.. In the fourteenth century the Lithuanian ruling classes were still predominantly pagan; but they had the tiresome habit of trying to blackmail the Byzantines by the threat of going over to the Roman Church p341 dashed in 1386, when Olgerd's son Jagiello was baptized into the Roman Church and married the queen of Poland. Through this marriage Lithuania was united with the Polish Kingdom, although it included a large Russian Orthodox population within its borders, moved outside the orbit of Byzantium p358 Historians are understandably fond of citing [Cremonan] Liutprand's famous description of an imperial audience in the palace in 949: the immense throne which by some hidden mechanism would suddenly levitate to the ceiling, with the emperor in it; the gilded tree with its singing birds of bronze, the mechanical lions which roared and beat the ground with their tails. It may well be that this display of Byzantine technological skill overawed the envoys of the less sophistcated nations of Eastern Europe. p365 Boris' conversion was followed by a repression of the Old Bulgar aristocracy and an attempt to entrust public offices to Slavs, the former subject-race, who had long been exposed to the influences of Byzantine Christianity. [Gosh, thought all in Bogomil rebellion?] Similarly in Hungary the Slavs seem to have played an important role in transformation of the Finno-Ugrian Magyars from nomads into farmers and in the religious conversion p390 'prayer of the heart" had gradually become linked with the frequent repetition of the "Jesus prayer" ("Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy upon me") and with certain bodily excercises (such as regulation of breathing [inhale Lord, exhale mercy]), designed to aid spiritual concentration. Gregory of Sinai, one of the foremost teachers of Hesychasm, was certainly no innovator.. goes back to the traditions of fifth century Christian ascetism, if not earlier p468-72 restatement of Philotheus' theory of "Moscow the Third Rome" in the Act instituting the patriarchate of Moscow in 1589.. Neither Ivan III nor any of his successors ever claimed that the marriage with Zoe gave thema right to this heritage.. 1582 Ivan IV declared to the papal envoy, Antonio Possevino: "we do not want the realm of the whole universe".. "Moscow the Second Kiev", not "Moscow the Third Rome" was the hallmark of their foreign policy.. Philotheus' views were strongly tinged with eschatological elements: the Third Rome was for him but a prelude - possible a brief one - to "the kingdom of which there shall be no end".. [Nikon vsOldBlvrs] "I am a Russian.. but my faith and religion are Greek".. [Although programmed panSlav conditioning eventually pops up, author's scholarly soul resumes control] p473-5 Early sultans strove to appear in the eyes of their Christian subjects as the heirs of East Rome [Senate/Synkletos as Divan until 1923 with Greek members].. Greek merchant aristocracy of Constantinople.. Phanariots.. growing influence upon the Church's organs of administration. Some of them, like the Cantacuzeni, claimed descent from Byzantine imperail families.. Rumanian historian [Iorga, 1935] has described as "Byzance apres Byzance", began to take shap north of the Danube. He most remarkable of these neo-Byzantine rulers was Basil Lupu (the Wolf), prince of Moldavia from 1634 to 1653. He managed the fiances of the patriarchate.. During the next century and a half the princes of Wallachia and Moldavia belonged to half a dozen or so prominent Greek families: some of them like the Cantacuzeni, acquired large estates in the principalities and intermarried witht he local Rumanian nobility; others like the Mavrocordatos and Ghikas (the latter a Hellenized Albanian family), were appointed by the sultan from among the Phanariots of Constantinople p476 "The death of Byzantium", of course, never wholly came about in the Balkans, any more than it did in Russia. For a century after 1821 the imagination of the Greek people and their statesmen continued to be haunted by the "Great Idea" of restoring the Byzantine Empire by the recapture of Constantinople. These ambitions were finally wrecked by the Asia Minor disaster of 1921-2 #@# Iorga Byzantium After Byzantium ISBN 973-9432-09-3 [depends heavily on Ghedeon, Regel, Gerlach; very paranoid!] p34 In 1492, the king of France, who wished to buy the right to the empire of the Paleologus family, issued a ruling for "Andrew of Paleologus, prince of Constantinople, seignor of Morea" p80 The Turkish conquest had not yet reached the Holy Mountain, whose inhabitants had not wasted any time in recognizing the new laic power that encircled their fortress with its rule. Under the guidance of the priest, the two monasteries, with their four, or even six, up to seven thousand monks, were not living as isolated from the world as one might think and as peacefully as the severe asceticism of their discipline required. After an attempt to dominate the ecumenical seat through their chosen ones, patriarchs like Matthew II, Dionysius, Mitrofan III, or Ioasaf II found refuge there. A Cantacuzenus lived his last days there. Just as in Byzantium the bishops were arguing about supreme authority, the monasteries were fighting among each other for supremacy and wealth, as was the case, in the sixteenth century, in the conflict between Esfigmenos and Chilandri, in that between the Monastery of Filoteon and Lavra itself. There was, however, respect for the written word, and when Michael Cantacuzenus' manuscripts were sold in Constantinople for a very low price, the monks of Athos were among the buyers. p118 A Raul (Rali) crossed into Russia and a Paleologus, Constantine, driven away by intrigues, settled among the Tartars in the Crimea p119 Michael Cantacuzenus, having a castle at Anhialos, became the leaseholder of the salt mines and the fish markets of the empire and great revenue officer; as "great merchant" (megas pramateutns) he received 60,000 ducats per year from the sultant to import precious furs from Russia through his agents, continuing the commerce initiated by Chalkokondyles. He was able to obtain for the sultan sixty galleys.. Guarded by a janissary, sealing his letters with the two-headed eagle, and considered by the Greeks "the pilar" of their nation, Michael Cantacuzenus was a scholar who had gathered at Anhialos a wholelibrary which included the chronicles that talked about his imperial ancestors. He had at his disposal not only the patriarchal and episcopal seats, but even the Romanian thrones. The history of the patriarchs of Constantinople, which we have mentioned, was dedicated to him. He was "the god" of the Greeks p120 Michael Cantacuzenus was, therefore, powerful enugh to be able to cause the fall of Patriarch Joasaph II p121 Owning their pew in the church and their lot in the cemetary, his family maintained their authority. Anthony Cantacuzenus had three sons.. Andronicus was able to buy back his father's house in COnstantinople and was hoping to regain the castle in Anhialos as well p125 Dumitrascu Cantacuzenus, the reliable tool of Ottoman politics, was chosen, during the period of the wars with Poland, to be made prince of endangered Moldavia; his daughter remained however in Constantinople p126-7 In general, Greek life in Constantinople was very luxurious. All the travelers mention the arrogance with which the women covered their heads with gold threads, showing off their splendor of their bracelets, golden shoes, and exuberance of precious stones. Not even the empress of Germany could equal them in this respect.. They tried to speak the most elevated Greek, while the language spoken in Athens was considered the most corrupted p130 creation by Jeremiah II of a new patriarchate in Moscow (January 1589), where he went, accompanied by the metropolitan of Monemvasia and of Elassona, arrogating to himself the right to turn bishops out of office, like the one at Kiev, and to create ecumenical centers, like the one in Vilna. The establishment of a new patriarchal church, with its four metropolitans, six archbishops, and eight bishops corresponded to the work done by Niphon in Wallachia almost a century earlier. Three patriarchs - Sofronie IV of Jerusalem, the Patriarch of Alexandria, who also represented Joachim VI of Antioch, the first one being present at the synod of 1593, and Meletie Pigas having to refuse the Byzantine throne, whose locum tenens would nevertheless become soon - sent in 1592 the synodic document confitming this creation. One of the emissaries of the ecumenical church was Dionysius Rali, archbishop of Trnovo, who would play an important role as a crusader, which shall be discussed later on. They also dared to intervene in the affairs of Poland, where the synod at Brest had voted the union with the Church of Rome. For a long time onward, the Ecumenical Church and its branches would know how to keep the Russian Church under control: thus, in 1663, the four Greek patriarchs established regulations regarding the seat in Moscow, and the great decisions against Patriarch Nikon of Moscow would be taken, during the synod of 1667, in the presence of Patriarchs Paisie of Alexandria and Macarie III of Antioch #@# Byzantine Achievement, Robert Byron, Russell, 1964 [orig 1929] p9 Fallmerayer, whose history of the Morea, published in the thirties [1830s], convinced a Europe anxious to believe it that the "Modern Greek" was of Slavonic origin. With sensation of relief, it was decided that the descendants of Pericles and Pheidias were extinct.. From then onwards the world at large, eyes riveted on the dead pillars of the Parthenon, has discounted the inhabitants beneath them as the unmoral refuse of mediaeval Slav migrations, sullying the land of their birth with the fury of their politics and the malformation of their small brown bodies p11 The theory of Slavic origin, derived from a superficial observation of village names.. simultaneously forgotten that chiselled noses, proud lips and rounded chins are still Greek features p13 In the country a regular formula of personal interrogation is the preliminary to all hospitality. The results from the insatiable attitude of enquiry, a universal, and to the Briton, extraordinary, respect for learning, for books as books, and for any aspect of cultural ability. From the highest to the lowest, even to the illiterate, this national trait has endured through the ages p16 conceit so cosmic.. Hellenic superiority over "the barbarians" p17 Greek people has endured, poised between East and West, child of neither, yet receptive to both p18 In face of common-sence euphony, they persist in maintaining a pronounciation invented by the ignorant English scholars of the sixteenth-century, which utters "basilews" for basileus instead of "vassilefs," "kilioy" for xilioi instead of "hilii" - thus rendering moribund a language which, after two milleniums, differs from Euripedes considerably less than modern English from Chaucer p30 Further, the Emperor was in theory, and frequently in fact, chosen by election, by the Senate, the Army, and the People in the Hippodrome. Equally might this triple ratification be revoked. The balance between individualism and political efficiency in the Byzantine state was maintained by and Oriental autocracy fettered by a Roman bureaucracy and supported by a Greek democracy p31 What the Byzantine sought through Christ, we may through a mathematical rationalisation of the intuitions. The goal is the same. Had Christianity remained as the Byzantines perfected it, and not been distorted by the common sence of the Latin peoples and the roamntics of the Northern, it might have merged harmoniously with the present mode of thought. p59 While Plato and Aristotle were groping the ladder of logic towards an impersoanl God conceived on the lines of a clandestine broadcasting-station, the Jews, voiced by their prophet-chroniclers, were building from their religious experience a permanent distinction between the motives and conceptions of man, and those of the parental, if terrible, Force of his restraint p65 Just as the Hellenic pictorial ability, carried centuries before the prejudice of Buddhism and Mazdaism against representational art by reason of its prosletysing efficacy, so now it was to fulfil the same function for Christianity, moving Westward p89 But a transformation was being wrought in the religious life of the Empire: the monastic reforms of Theodore of Studium, which, as foreshadowing those of Cluny, were destined to excercise a profound effect on the whole of Europe, had produced not only a more ordered and active asceticism than formerly, but had infused the church with the ideal of complete emancipation from the authority of the state p90 Finally, the breach with Rome which the [iconoclast] controversy had provoked, and which had been accentuated in 800 by the Pope's coronation of Charlemagne as rival Emperor of the West, was consummated in 867 by a formal though temporary schism p119 those principles of justice which form the basis of society in twentieth-century France or Scotland, were formerly as deeply engrained in the subjects of the Greek Empire p95 A revivial in classical culture was reflected in an unpractical trend of politics. An anti-militarist movemement, directed against the semi-independent leaders of the Asiatic regiments, resulted in the neglect of the border fortresses and the reduction of native troops in favour of mercenaries, who themselves revolted p135 Within the city, the various craftsmen were organised in guilds, which were under the supervision of the Eparch. Consumer and producer alike were protected from the middleman; wages and hours were fixed; and any form of trade-competition or possibility of the concentration of trade-control in the hands of an oligarchy of capitalists, was out of the question p141-2 The part played by this wealth in maintaining the stability of the Byzantine Empire is apparent by contrast with the states of Western Europe, where permanent services, such as a standin army, fleet, or bureaucracy, were almost entirely precluded, owing to the difficulty of raising sufficient coin for their wages. As a rule, the only rewards a king could offer his adherents were land and hereditary privelege. Hence the perpetual expansion of feudalism and the perpetual scourge of civil war that accompanied it. In the East on the other hand, the political organism rested on its money, and in the end failed with it. p145 Racial and religious distinctions, save where Christological heresies were concerned, were viewed with toleration. The Jews, hounded over the face of the earth, found refuge behind the walls of Galata. And the crusaders, to their inexpressible indignation, discovered in the city a Saracen mosque of official construction, where services for the Moslem residents were conducted in the full light of day p147 Each [ethnic] colony had its own bazaars, its own courts - abolished by the Turks in 1923 - and its own baily, who combined the functions of magistrate and captain p167 Finally, at the back of the iconoclast movement, whih assaulted the Orthodox Church in the eight century, lay a degree of spiritual aspiration, which provided a key to undersanding not only of all future Protestantism, but of the Byzantine cultural ideal and of that of the twentieth century with it p240 Greeks without education are as bees in mid-winter. Moreover, as Rambaud has written, "in the Greek Empire, the humanities seemed indispensible, and at the same time, sufficient, for the formation of civil servatnts." p272 Franks had stabbed their fellow-Europeans in the back. And had the Mongol advance reached Nicaea, the rallying-point of the Greeks, while the Latins were in occupation of Constantinople, the East must have conquered then and there. As it happened, the Mongol incursion so weakened and divided Moslem Sultanates as to avert the decision of the struggle for two centuries more p273 The fought not for gain, but for Christ, Emperor, and civilisation. For five centuries, until Manzikert, they remained to all intents and purposes invincible pp299-300 Under the strain of the last years, the faults of the unchanging Greek had pushed to the surface. Greedy of money, mentally exercised ovet the very chaff of theology, seeking compensation for misfortune in overweening conceit, these men were scarcely average. Even in their appearance there was something unearthly: the Florentines, at the Council of 1438 regarded with astonishmnet their demeanour of pedantic vanity, their long beards and paintedeyebrows, their flowing mantles and outlandish hats p309 political unit of early Russia was the city-state.. Tartar invasions of the thirteenth century, the growing civilisation fostered in the cities, was driven into the interiro to develop itself; and the economic basis of the Russian state, divorced from commerce, became agricultural. During this period, it was only the Byzantine cultural foundation that saved the RUssian identity from total immersion by the Oriental migrations #@# Charanis [Rutgers], Stud Demogr Byz Emp, London, 1972 pI-17 In his account of the revolt of Thomas the Slavonian (820-23) against the emperor Michaeal II, the Byzantine historian Genesius lists a variety of peoples from whme the armies of the rebels had been drawn: Saracens, Indians, Egyptians, Assyrians, Medes, Abasgians, Zichs, Vandals, Getae [Vlahs], Alans, Chaldoi, Armenians, adherents of the heretical sects of the Paulicians and Athinganoi pII-27 We also know that early in the ninth century the Paulician Sergius Tychikos corresponded with a certain Leo the Montanist. The reference to this correspondenceis rather significant, for it indicates that the Montanists, who henceforth cease to appear in history, may have merged with the Paulicians. This would explain the apparent increase in the strength of the Paulicians in Phygria and the consequent apprehensive attitude toward them of the ecclesiastical and imperial authorities of Constantinople pII-34 significance of the Armenian element in the Byzantine Empire is further illustrated by the number of persons of Armenian descent who came to occupy influential positions pII-39 Croats and Serbs, representing the last Slavonic wave to reach the Balkans, came with the consent of Heraclius and settled in the upper territory of the peninsual, the Croats in Dalmatia as far as the Sava, the Serbs in the region of the Urbas and the Morava, the ancient Margus.. native Illyrians and Thracians of the occupied regions retired into the mountains, where they remained unnoticed till the eleventh century, when they emerged as Albanians and Vlachs pII-41 Despite the Slavic flood, the Greeks held their own in eastern Peloponnesus, in central Greece, including Attica (a region which is known to have been a theme as early as 695), and of course, in the islands. A number of strongholds are known to have remained in the hands of the Byzantine... These strongholds, even Thessalonica, were not great urban establishments in the seventh century, nor for that matter in the eight, but they were to serve as centers for the pacification, absorption, and eventual Hellenization of the Slavs in Greece.. Slavs in Greece proper were absorbed and disappeared from history. Fallmerayer's statement that there is no real Hellenic blood in the veins of the modern Greeks cannot, therefore, be accepted.. Scholars have noted that whereas about A.D. 600 Sicily "contained a considerable Latin element," by 650 it "had become completely Greek in language, rite, and culture. The explanation for this, it was thought, lay in the influx of a considerable number of Greek-speaking elements from Syria and Egypt.. pII-43 Latin ceased to be studied and was eventually forgotten. An emperor of the ninth century [Michael III to Pope Nicholas I] referred to it as a "barbarous Scythian language" pIII-141 The native peoples of Asia Minor, for instance, were not, at least as late as the beginning of the ninth century, as thoroughly Hellenized as is generally believed. This is shown not only by the fact that some of the native languages, for instances, Phrygian, Isaurian, and perhaps also Celtic continued to be spoken past the sixth century.. certain practice of the imperial government, notable the recruitment of barbarians for the army and their settlement in the Empire, and the transfer of peoples from one region of the Empire to another.. Inherited from the pagan Roman Empire this practice was frequently resorted to throughout the duration of the Byzantine Empire.. Justinian certainly resorted to it. We know that he settled Vandals in Asia Minor and Kotigurs, a Bulgar people in Thrace pIII-145 Nicephorus, we are told, rebuil the city of Patras and settled it with Greeks brought [back!] from Calabria for this purpose.. city of Lacedaemon [cf pX-146], using for this purpose various peoples brought from Asia Minor, includign some Armenians. The peoples transferred to western peloponnesus were Orthodox Christians and no doubt predominantly Greek speaking, for the object of Nicephorus was to Christianize the Slavs who since the reign of Maurice had dominated the western Peloponnesus pIII-151 There is no doubt that transfers of population and the settlement of new peoples were major factors in military and demographics revival and economic prosperity.. It will be recalled that Paulicians were settled in Thrace in the eighth century and again in the tenth. In transplanting the Paulicians to Thrace the aim of the Byzantine authorities was "firstly to drive them out of their strong cities and forts which they held as despotic rulers, and secondly to put them as trustworthy guards against the inroads of the Scythians by which the country of Thrace was often oppressed".. Not only did they hold tenaciously to their beliefs, but converted so many of the indegenous inhabitants who for various reasons were dissatisfied witht he Byzantine administration.. "all the inhabitants of Phillippopolis [now Plovdiv BG]", writes Anna Comnena, "were Manicheans, except a few.. They increased in number until all the inhabitants around Phillippopolis were heretics. Then another brackish stream of Armenians joined them and yet another" [Alexiad, Dawes, p385] pV-237 It may be said, therefore, that the battle of Mentzikert and the subsequent loss by the empire of easter and central Asia Minor brought to an end the great role which, beginning with the end of the sixth century, the Armenians had played in the political and military life of the empire. But Armenians continued to live in the empire down to its very end pV-238 "The Armenian", writes J Laurent [RvuEtArm 1920,1,47], "was never able to fraternize completely with the Greeks. However high he may have risen in the empire, however great his fortunes may have been, however devoted the service which he may have rendered in the army and in the administration, the Armenian never became a Byzantine like others. He kept at least for himself and his private life, his language, his habits, his customes and his national religion; grouped with him were other Armenians, immigrants like hime; instead of hellenizing himself in Greece, he armenized the Greek territories he settled; he remained in the Byzantine empire an unassimilated foreign element, which on occasions became dangerous" pVII-69 The Byzantine empire was never in its long history a true national state with an ethnically homogeneous population.. To the Byzantine empire of the thirteenth century belonged that part of Asia Minor whic had been occupied in ancient times by the Greeks on the coast and by Thracians, Mysians, Bithynians, Lydians, Phrygians in the interior. But already by the time of Strabo [xiv,5,23] it was difficult to identify these peoples, for the process of hellenization had gone very far. Yet in the rural communities of the interior there remained many elements which were only superficially touched by Hellenism pVII-71 Russian scholars have attributed to the Slavs a role of major importance in the history and devlopment of the institutions of the byzantine empire. [J Min Prosvieshcheniia: Uspenspky 225 (1883)307-319, Vasilevsky (1879) 160-1] A theory particularly developed by them is that the free village community which was the characteristic feature of the rural structure of the Byzantine empire from the seventh century onward was a Slavic institution adoted by the Byzantines at the time of the estblishment of the Slavic sttlement in the empire. The important element of this theory is that the composition of each community was predominantly Slavic with communal rather than private ownership of property, THis theory is no longer accepted.. was private and not communal pVII-73 There is some evidence, indeed, that additional Slavs settled or were settled in Asia Minor after the eight century, but this evidence is general and contains no indication that these Slavs were very numerous. In his account of the revolt of Thomas the Slavonian in the reign of Michael II, Theophanes Continuatus says of the Slavs that the "often took root in Asia Minor". Uspensky seized upon this statement and inferred from it that there was an almost continuous stream of Slavs settling in Asia Minor pVII-74-5 Justinian [II] selected 30,000 from the Slavs he had transplanted, armed.. Neboulus as their leader.. against the Arabs.. deserted.. angered Justinian who "then destroyed what remained..women and children at a place clled Leucate.. recorded only by Theophanes.. denied by Lamansky.. Was it not he who.. destroy the well to do inhabitants of Cherson? pVII-80 The revolution headed by Thomas, as the ever judicious Panchenko remarks, was a social movement, complicated by religious and politcal factors. Among the followers of Thomas there were some Slavs but to assume that this fact gave to this revolt the character of a Slavic national movement is pure nonesense. No better proof for this can be offered than the fact tha the Opsikion theme, the theme where most of the Slavic settlements were located, was one of the two themes in Asia Minor which failed to support Thomas pIX-75-7 Starr [Athens,1939] has pointed out that between the death of Heraclius (641) and 1204, a period of more than five and a half centuries, the Jews suffered only three general persecutions which together covered about fifty years.. No less an authority than Henri Gregoire has states that is Starr's conclusion 'is ever revised, it will be in favor of the thesis of absolute toleration' [Renaissance (Qly) II-III NY 1945,p481].. Andronicus' chrysobull.. Janina.. clause which covered the Jews of the town. They were to be free and unmolested like the rest of the inhabitants.. Athanasius in protest of the emperor's tolerance.. Besides the Jews, the patriarch singled out the Armenians and the Turks and charged the emperor with letting them set up their houses of prayer.. reply given by John, bishop of Citron, toward the end of the twelfth century to Constantine Cabasilas, archbishop of Durazzo.. 'People of alien tongues and alien beliefs,' wrote John, 'such as Jews, Armenians, Ismaelites, Hagarites, and others such as these were permitted from old to dwell in Christian countries and cities except that they had to live separately and not together with the Christians.. [cf Massie p255] The problem of the special Jewish tax has been throroughly discussed by Andreades, Dolger and Starr, after an initial diagreement, ended by agreeing in favor of a tax pX-14 Apparently Lampros, as did also Hopf, understood by the Demenitae of the chronicle [Monemvasia], probably because neither he nor Hopf knew anything about the Sicilian town of Demena... "Some sailed to the island of Sicily and they are still there in a place called Demena and are called Demenitae [hence Maniatae] instead of Lacadaemonitae" pXIV-80 It is known from Greek and Mohammedan sources relating to the conquest of Syria and Palestine by the Arabs that many Greeks abandoned their homes and sought shelter elsewhere #@# Kazhdan, Ch Byz Cult 11&12c 1985 ucal p58 in Byzantium wealth was measured in bullion, while in the Latin world property was still the measure of prosperity p60 acquisition of land did not lead to ownership but only.. occupation and use.. #@# Kazhdan 1982 DumbOak ISBN 0-88402-103-3 p23 merchants formed the principal social grouping of the Byzantine p24 arrival of the crusading army at Constantinople in 1147, Kinnamos, the Byzantine historian of the twelfth century, noted with apparent surprise the hierarchy among the leading grup of the crusaders..radical difference between two societies: the hierarchical structure of the western world on the one hand and the lack of hierarchy in twelfth-century Byzantine.. autumn of 1189, a Byzantine embassy was sent by Isaac II to Frederich Barbarosssa, who, says Choniates, ordered the ambassadors to be seated in his presence and had chairs placed in the hall even for their servants. By doing so, comments Choniates, the German ruler made fun of the Byzantines, who failed to take onto consideration the virtue or nobility of different people and who appraised the whole population by the same measure p25 Chrysostom expresses scorn at the beginning of the treatise, the nomen_gentile, and the tendency to consider wealth as a sign of social prestige p32 even in Constantinople the guild organization declined from the twelfth century onward p33 demographic study by Angeliki Laiou-Thomadakis further shows the difference in family structure between the predonomantly Greek theme of Thessalonica and the region of Strymon, which was populated mostly by Slavs. The greek family was as a rule nuclear and individual, whereas the Slavic family was often an extended, many layered structure similar to lineage p44-5 Gold and silver coins were produced primarily for the needs of the state, such as taxation of subjects and payment of mercenaries, rather than for more purely economic... notion of just price and just profit penetrated Byzantine economic and juridical thought. John Tzetes relates a typical anecdote. He saw thathis contemporaries in twelfth-century Constantinople blamed the dealers ifn fish and fruit for selling their wares in the city market for more than they had paid frr them on the shore. Mass psychology could not accept the source of profit in this case.. Byzantine government, including the attempts to prohibit interest.. Money lending did not therefore serve the function of promoting agrarian or industrial developmetn.. Under Diocletian the basis of taxation consisted of a piece of land of definite value and extent and the individual who cultivated it. All possessions were strictly measured, and tax collectors assessed payment according ot the quantity of land and its quality in terms of implements, cattle and manpower.. Ostrogorsky stated as a general rule that the poorer the peasant, the higher the tax liability #@# Alan Harvey Eco Exp Byz Emp Cambridge 1989 ISBN 0-521-37151-1 p244 upsurge in economic activity in the eleventh and twelvth centuries is unmistakable p246 peasant holdings fragmented through repeated division among heirs.. vilages were rebuilt.. after the political upheavals of the late twelvth.. monastic foundation.. p261 Byzantine towns were so dominated by the landowning elite that the merchantile and industral groups were never able to gain control of the towns and the long-running struggles for power between townsmen and their feudal overlord, so familiar in the west, did not occur in byzantium. Urban vitality in Byzantium was most notable in the European provinces... p262 growing power of the feudal aristocracy was reflected in the greater vital ity of these towns in the eleventh and twelvth centuries, a sharp contrast with the seventh and eighth.. #@# Constantelos Christian Hellenisnm ISBN 0-89241-523-1 caratzas.com p83 St John Chrysostom, as a priest in Antioch, delivered many sermons critical of the Jews as people. In fact, Chrysostom was more critical than most Greek Fathers from any other geographical region. He accused the Jews of arrogance, malice, vainglory, hypocrisy, betrayal and ingratitude, covetousness, exclusivenes[cq], and pride of their descent. His arguments are based not only on the fact that they did not receive Christ but also on the treatment that the Old Testament prophets received from them.. Though Chrysostom did not attribute the guilt for the crucifiction of Jesus to all Jews, he described Jewish justice in the trial of Jesus before the chief priest, Caiaphas, as perverted. He condemned the Jews at the trial who cried out to Pilate "His blood be on us, and on our children" (Matt 27:25), but he did not accept it as a curse which would affect later generations. [Is it not forbidden in Judaism for humans to hold children to the crimes of their parents, and only God may punish for no more than three generations?] In the words of Chrysostom: "The lover of the human being (Christ the philanthropos) though the Jews acted with so much madness, both against themselves and against their children ([when they cried out 'let his blood be on us, and on our children' ]), so far from confirming their sentence upon their children, confirmed it not even on them.. and counts them worthy of good things beyond number".. It should be notes that Chrysostom was not less critical of Hellenes or heretics p116 We know by name some thirty-five religious minorities which existed in the age of Justinian.. Joshua Starr writes that from 641 to 1204 the Jews suffered only three general persecutions, though he stresses that anti-Jewish measures introduced by Leo III were especially severe p117 Jews of Crete complained to Patriarch Metrophanes about Orthodox Christians who molested them there, the ecumenical patriarch wrote an encyclical in 1568 urging the inhabitants of Crete to abstain from insulting the Jews or accusing them unjustly. In fact, the patriarch stated that those who raised hands against the Jews or insulted them should be anathematized, excommunicated and condemned to eternal punishment p118 Violation of Jewish temples was punishable. For example, Justinian retained a previously issued law which protected the inviolability of the synagogue. The Jews could adhere to and practice their faith. It was forbidden to molest them on the Sabbath, to violate their ceremonies or to compel them to appear in court on the Sabbath... Runciman [Crusades 1951/1964 v1 11-12,17], who refers to these sources, adds that "the part played by the Jews ([in the capture of Jerusalem by the Persians]) was never forgotten nor forgiven," and when a few years later the Arabs overran the Near East "the Jews gave them active help, serviing as their guides" [elsewhere cit Sharf Byz Jewry NY 1971] p121 hardening of Greek attitudes towards Jews in the twelfth century and later has been attributed to the changes brought about by the influence of the Crusades upon Greek tolerance. The Greeks came to be suspicious of and hate everything foreign p122 Elisa of Nisibis was greatly amazed at the freedom the Jews enjoyed in the empire. He writes: "The Romans ([Greeks]) tolerate many Jews living in their lands, protect them, allow them to officially conduct their religious ceremonies and to build synagogues. In this satet the Jews can freely state: I am a Jew. Each one of them is free to follow his religion and to pray even in public without any fear of any obstacle in his way" The Jews differed only in religion from the rest of the people, for they had been totally Hellenized p123 As a rule, explosions of misalodoxy (hostility to foreign beliefs) were paroxysms rather than the normal behavior of the Greeks p158 For many centuries all these influences survived, and Russian life and civilization felt the impact of the Ecumenical Patriarchate's missions, including its ecumenical and philanthropic outlook. "Beyond all doubt" wrote Dostoevsky in 1880, "the destiny of a Russian is Pan European and universal. To become a true Russian is to become the brother of all men.. Our future lies in universality, won not by violence, but by the strength derived from our great ideal - the reuniting of all mankind" pp 160-1 Unlike Greek Christianity, for nearly seven centuries Russian Christianity remained ignorant and even suspicious of the treasures of Greek antiquity, with serious consequences for Russian Christianity as well as intellectual and scientific knowledge. "anyone who loves geometry is abhorred by God" wrote a Russian bishop. "A spiritual sin it is to study astronomy and the books of Greece" wrote another. This attitude survived as late as the 19th century. For example, under Nicholas I (1825-1855) all works on logic (including Aristotle's) and philosophy were forbidden. While the Christian Greeks, with some exceptions, never ceased to study the ancient masters, not a few Russians spoke "scornfully of the foolishness of the Greeks," an attitude reminiscent of Tertullian and a Pope gregory the Great rather than of Justin, Clement of Alexandria, Gregory of Nyssa, Photios, Arethas of Caesarea, Leo of Synnada, John of Euchaita, Eustathios of Thessalonike and other Greek Fathers.. Fedotov "had serious doubts about the benefits of the use of the Slavic vernacular. Having received the Bible and a vast amount of various religious writings in their own language, the Slavs had no incentive to learn Greek, for translations once made were sufficient fo immediate practical needs. They were enclosed, therefore within the narrow limits of an exclusively religious literature. They were never initiated into the greater classical tradition of Hellenic antiquity. If only our ancestors had learned Greek... they could have reached finally the very springs of Greek inspiration... they received but one Book".. Florovsky admits that because the Russians had failed to adopt the classical Greek heritage, they did not acquire teh Greek inquisitive mind which had kept Byzantium ever searching, unquiet and in constant tension and renewal. "The Byzantine achievement had been accepted, but Byzantine inquisitiveness had not. For that reason the (Byzantine) achievement itself could not be kept alive" [Florovsky, Prob Old Rus Cult Slavic_Rvu 21 (1962), 1-17, esp 6-10] SOme modern scholars explain that "although Kievan was the religious offshoot of Byzantium, Russians found Greek civilization (and secular learning) largely inaccessible because of the Church Slavonic idiom and the narrow religious preoccupation of the (Russian) Christian elite" #@# John Meyendorf, Byzantium & Rise of Russia, Cambridge, 1980 repr SVOTS.edu 1989 ISBN 0-88141-079-9 LC89-28011 pp14-15 religious conflict with the now German-dominated papacy.. Yaroslav, however, may have been close to the idea of imitating the Bulgarian assumption of the imperium. After building in Kiev a cathedral dedicated to 'St. Sophia' (after 1037), in obvious imitation of the famous 'Great Church' of Constantinople, but also of the Bulgarian St. Sophia in Ohrid, he fought a bloody war against Byzantium (1043) and appointed a Russian, Hilarion, as metropolitan of Kiev (1051) p21 Ethnic Greeks, living in Russia, were not particularly popular with the local population. The Chronicles frequently accuse them of being deceitful [cit 1164 of Bp Anthony of Chernigov 'In himself he held deceit, because Greek by birth'], but generally recognize their 'wisdom' (mudrost) and refinement (khitrost), the signs of a culturally superior civilization [typical panSlav misHellene derision!] p25 Some of the more difficult texts remained for ever unintelligible in Slavic translation p34 Recognizing the inevitable, the [exile] patriarchate of Nicea consecrated St Sava as autocephalous archbishop of Serbia (1219) and, in 1235, recognized the Bulgarian patriarchate of Trnovo p37 The submission of central Asia, Persia and Northern China, including Peking, to Mongol rule was completed by 1225. In June 1223, the two Mongol generals Jebe and Subudey, having crossed the Caucasus from Persia, inflicted a crushing defeat upon a coalition of Russian and Cuman armies on the river Kalka p52 emergence in Byzantium of an articulate and convinced party of 'latinophrones', favoring union with Rome, was closely connected with the presence of Italian merchants [today represented by the Ionian-derived Italogamous "Greek Shipping" community] pp65-6 In 1340, Pope Benedict XII.. blessed Casimir's Crusade against the 'schismatic nation of the Russians' (gens scismatica Ruthenorum) and after the Polish occupation of Galicia [1240-1667], authorized the Archbishop of Cracow to annul the promises made to Detko and the Russian boyars p97-9 direct ('mystical') knowledge of God and the primacy of incarnational, eschatological and sacramental values over secular concerns. This provoked a polarization - not new in Byzantine society - between a monastic-dominated Church and the 'humanists' who promoted the study of Greek antiquity and who were becoming increasingly attracted by the opportunities in the West, particularly in Italy, with the beginning of the Renaissance. The victory of the Hesychasts encouraged trans-national contacts between monastic communities.. aiming at maintaining the values and structures of the Orthodox faith in the midst of a rapidly changing political situation in the Middle East and Eastern Europe.. [1347 Thessaloniki Abp] Gregory Palamas on the one hand denies that Aristotelian logic can serve as a criterion in showing which theological arguments are truly decisive; on the other hand, he develops at length the patristic doctrines of 'deification' (8ewsis) or communion (koivwvia), with God, which represent, in his opinion, the only acceptable context for a Christian epistemology.. position of Palamas was endorsed by the Council of 1341, and Barlaam left for Italy.. significant group of Byzantine Thomists - led by the brothers Demetrios and Prochoros Kydones - also opposed Palamism, but in the context of a deliberate trend towards a rapprochement with Italy and the Latin West p112 The monastic takeover did not occur with the hesychast victory of 1347: it was rather connected with a reaction of public opinion against the arbitrary policies of Emperor Michael VIII (1259-82), who imposed the 'Uniate' John Beccos as patriarch and, indirectly, contributed to the moral prestige of the monks who opposed him p114 Gregory Palamas himself (as also Nicholas Cabasilas) preached against usury and explained the existing political miseries as inevitable because of the injustices inflicted upon the poor [NB proSlav proTurk usurper Catacosinos & 1342 Thessalonike commune which massacred upper classes and subsequent civil war and plague loved by panSlavs but not Greeks] p122 Obviously the Arab occupation of the entire Middle East had not suppressed the prestige of the Holy Land and of ancient Palestinian monasticism.. It did not involve any spectacular modification of the liturgy, but only the structure of daily and festal services and monastic discipline, whereas the basic features of these services remained the same, as they had resulted from a synthesis between the 'cathedral' and the 'monastic' structures p126 In Byzantium, the humanists who cultivated the literary and intellectual traditions of Greek antiquity were a narrow elite, increasingly attracted by the West. Their connections [to this day] with the Slavic world were non-existent, or tenuous p128 such as the remarkable revival of monasticism, Hesychasm was bringing to Russia a more personal form of religion, which was promoting not only monastic spirituality as such, but also ideas on the deification of the body and transfiguration of the entire creation p139 This view of Hesychasm as having a stifling effect on artistic style can find further support in the fact that monks preached and practised poverty, and could not, therefore, sympathize with the extraordinary expenses required for mosaic decorations, or other works of art: some of them, including Patriarch Athanasius I and Gregory Palamas himself, were even accused of iconoclasm [Latins abhored hesychasm & iconoclasm] p155 Soon after his victory and assumption [usurpation] of the imperial throne, Cantacuzenos proceeded with the formal abolition of the metropolitanate of Galicia. The solemn manner in which this act was performed, must reflect the fact that the ecclesiatical unity of Russia was seen, by the government of Cantacuzenos, as a matter of great importance p161-2 During the following two years, the joint policy of Cantacuzenos and Moscow produced spectacular results. Not only was Metropolitan Theognostos able to visit Volhynia in 1348 and assert his jurisdiction in the area, but Symeon of Moscow - with the cooperation of both the metropolitan and the khan - succeeded in concluding matrimonial alliances between his own family and the courts of Lithuania and Tver. Increasingly, the Grand-prince of Moscow acquired the stature of leader 'of all Russia'.. Tatar policies in Russia were based on maintaining a balance among the various princes. Similarly, the Genoese influence in Constantinople and in Sarai, fully determined by crude commercial interests, also tended to support division and competition among the Rulers of Russia and, as such, contradict the ideal of a united Orthodox Commonwealth, promoted by Cantacuzenos and his friend Patriarch Philotheos Kokkinos. The year 1349, which saw the defeat of Cantacuzenos by the Genoese in Constantinople, witnessed the conquest of Galicia and Volhynia by Casimir if Poland [until 1667] p175 formal conversion of John V to Roman Catholicism in 1369 was not taken too seriously p205-7 With the Genoese in control of Galata, in Constantinople itself, and the Venetians holding solid position in the Agean and the Crimea, the Byzantine Empire could make no substantial foreign policy decision involving Italian interest without the acquiescence of either Venice, or Genoa. However, the fierce competition which opposed the two Italian republics to each other sometimes allowed for, at least, some leverage.. The only difference was that both Venice and Genoa were now treating with Murad, rather than with the Byzantines, seating or unseating Greek emperors with Turkish cooperation.. The several mentions of Genoese money, used for the promotion of a 'Muscovite' metropolitan, show that the Genoese merchants were actively involved in Byzantine and Russian ecclesiastical policy.. Mamai and his Genoese allies attempted to use diplomacy and money in re-establishing the old Mongol rule upon increasingly restless Russians p208 Loyalty to the weakening Horde was only in the interest of the Genoese, whom Philotheos - and his friend John Cantacuzenos - had always hated and whose control of Galata and all the Byzantine economy was the very symbol of the Empire's humiliation p213 [Rus Metr] Cyprian himself gives a dramatic description of the situation in Byzantium in 1379-80: 'could not leave', he writes, 'because of the great trouble and violence which oppressed the Queen of cities: the sea was controlled by the Latins, while the land was possessed by the God-hating Turks' p222-3 impending menace, Dimitri appealed to the moral authority of St Sergius, and publicly receiving his blessing for the impending struggle, he also hastily succeeded un setting up an alliance of Russian princes, which included two sons of Olgerd of Lithuania, older half-brothers of Jagiello, Andrew of Polotsk and Dimitri of Bryansk. The decisive battle took place on 8 September 1380, on the upper Don, less than 200 miles south of Moscow.. Kulikovo. For the first time since the Mongols conquered Russia, a Russian army repulsed a major Tatar onslaught.. Genoese contingent fought on the Mongol side at Kulikovo.. Genoese authorities of Caffa were already in touch with Khan Tokhtamysh, Mamai's powerful competitor.. Mamai, after his defeat by the Russians in September 1380, faced Khan Tokhtamysh on the river Kalka in the spring of 1381: utterly crushed, he sought refuge in Caffa with his Genoese allies, but was murdered there upon arrival p239 dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, which occurred in 1385.. Jagiello's personal ambition and anti-Muscovite feelings were hardly compatible with similar ambitions of Dimitri and parallel anti-Lithuanian sentiments in Muscovite ruling circles.. promised his own conversion, that of his brothers and relatives and that of all nobles and dignitaries to Roman Catholicism. He pledged to 'reunite forever his own lands of Lithuania and Russia to the crown of the kingdom of Poland.. Pope Wojtyla graduated from Jagiello university].. practice adopted in the fourteenth century by militant [fatimist?] Roman Catholicism in Central and Eastern Europe - particularly by the Hungarian and Polish kings - to assimilate 'schismatics' with pagans and therefore rebaptize p259 temporary salvation of the city came from the victory of Tamerlane over Bayezid in Angora (1402), not from either Western or Russian help.. Cyprian's main historical contribution was that of being the most active, the most consistent, and the most competent transmitter of Byzantine theological, liturgical and literary traditions to Russia #@# "Were Ancient Heresies National or Social Movements in Disguise", A H M Jones, J_Theol_Std,New Series,v.10, Oct 1959 p280 modern historians of the later ROamn EMpire, whether secular or ecclesiastical, seem to agree that certain of the heresies and schisms of that period were in some sence national rather than purely religious movements [cit esp Stein Hist_Bas-Empire Paris 1949; also Woodward Christianity&Nationalism in Latter_Rom_Emp London 1916].. Donatism to Africa.. Monophytism in Egypt and Syria, or Arianism among German p282 Donatists were certainly not anti-imperial at the beginning: they in fact appealed to the emperor against the Caecilianists. When Constantine had finally rejected their cause, the raised up the cry that the State should not interfere in religion.. But When Julian ordered the restoration of banished clergy and confiscated church property they were happy to accept imperial aid p284 leaders and apologists of the movement, men like Parmenian (who was not even an African), the learned and eloquent Tyconius, the lawyer Petilian came from cultivated and Romanized classes.. Their literature, or what survives of it, was all written in Latin p287 no trace survived of the old antagonism between Egypt and Alexandria: Alexandria was the undisputed religious capital of Egypt.. In the sixth century.. Alexandria, where the Greek element was strongest, was a stronghold of monophysitism.. aristocracy conformed for prudential p288 no hint of any anti-imperial movement, much less any rebellion, during the period of close on two centuries that elapsed between the Council of Chalcedon and the Arab conquest. The Alexandrians, of course, frequently rioted when teh imperial governement forced Chalcedonian patriarchs upon them, and considerable bodies of troops had to be used to supress the. But during periods when the emperors favoured and tolerated monophysitism, the Egyptians seem to have been contant.. That the Copts welcomed the Persian invaders there is no evidence.. Nor is there any good evidence that the Copts welcomed the Arabs p289 But the reaction of the Egyptians seems to have been confused, and uncertain, some fleeing in panic, others deserting to the Arabs, others reisting to the best of their ability. The people of Alexandria were certainly horrified when they learned that they were to be surrendered to the Arabs under the final treaty. John's [Bp of Nikiu, in R H Charles Chronicle] own attitude is significant. He regards the Arab conquest not as a deliverance, but as a calamity, the judgement of God upon the emperor Heraclius for persecuting the orthodox.. He betrays no hatred of the Roman Empire as such, and so far from rejoicing in its fall, laments the disasters which the apostasy of certain emperors brought upon it.. Egyptian church never wavered in its devotion to the homoousian doctrine enunciated by Alexander and Athanasius, and the monophysitite doctrine of Dioscorus.. more simply explained by the structure and traditions of the Egyptian church. From the earliest times the bishop of Alexandria had p290 virtually appointed all the other bishops of Egypt, and by tradition he excercised an absolute authority over them.. Alexandria claimed a pre-eminent position in the church.. loyalty to Dioscorus' memory. Hence their insistence that Chalcedon, which had condemned him, must be explicitly anathematized.. primacy of Constantinople [decided there] must have also contributed to Egyptian hatred of Chalcedon.. To turn to the Jacobite church of Syria [cit Devresse].. monophysite heresy was in the sixth century by no means confined to Syriac-speaking areas.. journeys of James Baradaeus covered not only Syria and Armenia, but Cappadocia, Cilicia, Isauria, Pamphylia, Lycaonia, p291 Phrygia, Lycia, Caria, and Asia, as well as Cyprus, Rhodes, Chios, and Mitylene.. heresy did not establish itself in all Syriac-speaking areas.. Palestine was no more, and probably less, Hellenized than Phoenicia and Syria, and we have evidence of Syriac-speaking Christian townsfolk, who knew no Greek, at Scythopolis and Gaza p292 monophysite nd Syriac-speaking areas therefore by no means coincided in the sixth century.. Not until the Arab conquest was the SYriac language particulrly associated with monophysitism. East of the Euphrates Syriac had a continuous history as a literary language, and here it was used by the churches both orthodox and heretical from the fourth century onwards. In Syria and Palestine Syriac survived only as the spoken language of the lower classes, especially in the country, and Greek was normally used by the churches, though for the benefit of the lower classes some concessions were made to Syriac.. same linguistic division existed in the monophysite church.. We possess very long and detailed accounts of the wars waged under Justinian, Justin II, Tiberius, and Maurice between the Persian and the ROman empires in the very areas where monophysitism was strongest, but there is no hint in them that the monophysites gave Persia any aid or comfort, or indeed regarded them with anything but fear and detestation p293 Armenia had been an independent kingdom down to the reign of Theodosius the Great, when it was partitioned between Rome and Persia.. had possessed their own churhc, which might truly be called national, since the early fourth century. In the middle decades of the fifth century they were involved in a struggle with Persia, which was endeavoring to impose Zoroastrianism on them, and took no part in the councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. As late as 506 they were unaware of the issues involved, and learned of them only from certain Mesopotamian monophysites who were being persecuted, at the instigation of the Nestorians, by the Persian government. They naturally accepted the views of their fellow-sufferers.. no hostility to Rome, however, for when in 572 they revolted against Persia they appealed to Justin II.. Maurice again attempted to impose the Chalcedonian position on them, but the bishops or Persian Armenia refused to attend his council, and excommunicated the bishops of Roman Armenia, who had conformed.. Goths became Arians because they were evangelized at a time when Arianism was the official.. remained Arians from mere conservatism p295 Modern historians are, I think, retrojecting into the past the sentiments of the present age when they argue that mere religious or doctrinal dissension cannot have generated such violent and enduring animosity as that evinced by the DOnatists, Arians, or Monophysites, and that the real moving force behind these movements must have been national or class feeling p297 religious beliefes were determined by a variety of irrational influences. Some were swayed by the authority of a revered theologian, or more often by that of a holy man whose orthodoxy was guaranteed by his austerities and miracles. The great majority accepted what they had been brought up to believe as children, or the dominant belief of their social milieu #@# Islam & Oriental Churches, Wm Ambr Shedd, Young Peoples Missionary Movement, 1902-3 Princeton lect, NY 1908 p67 learned doctor of the law, in the course of which, he related to us with a very evident sense of satisfaction the details of an interview between the Lord Jesus and Plato: both of whom, he said, were great physycians p75 Lane, in his Modern_Egyptians [357], remarks "that it is a very remarkable trait in the character of the people of Egypt and other countries of the East, that Muslims, Christians, and Jews adopt each other's supersititions, while they abhor the more rational doctrines of each other's faiths" p151 It is the opinion of careful observers that a portion of the Muhammadan population of the Turkish empire are the descendents of Christian ancestors, Greek, Armenian, and Syrian [cit: Hogarth, Nearer East, 176; Ramsay Impressions of Turkey, 96] p165 letters of Ishuyabh soon after the Arab conquest, he reproaches the Christians of Fars and Khurasan for having accepted Islam in large numbers, partly to avoid the loss of property entailed by steadfastness in the faith [footnote: This is true of several tribe son the border of Turkey and Parsia near Urumia. In the regions of Bohtan, Midyat and Sassun thare are Muhammadan Kurds who are said by tradition to have once been Christian. Those in Sassun are called the "Cross deniers"] p170 At Pishpek in Russian Turkestan, near the Chinese border and about three hundred miles east of the city of Taskend, is a cemetary of Christian graves, eight acres in extent, with Syriac inscriptions on the stones. Here Christians were buried for about five hundred years, from AD 850 to AD 1330, some with Turkish and some with Syriac names p173 In the lists of the Nestorian dioceses of the twelfth century and in the later history the metropolitan see of Tangut is mentioned. The evidence is barely summarized here, but it is clear that Nestorian Christianity was widely extended among Turks and Mongols of the Uighur and Kerait tribes from the regions adjoining Samarkand to Northern China and Manchuria. It may be that the Christians in China were all Mongols or Turks rather than Chinese #@# Robinsom Claremone Nag Hammadi Henrickson 1986 ISBN0-913573-16-7 p136 Diaspora Christianity was comprised of widely separated metropolitan centers, provincial capitals, travel to which involved not only overland trips of considerable distances, but especially necessitated the use of commercial traffic by ship from port to port. The shift from fishing boat to passenger ship prefigured that from farm to slum. No sooner would wandering charismatics from the hamlets sail to such a port and find themselvesin the slums of the port area than a new life style would come upon them, with all the unintentional but very real shifting of the Christian message that this entailed.. Theissen supplies a much-needed sociological supplement to my presentation worked out too exclusively in terms of the history of ideas: "Not only is the Gospel of Thomas a modified sayings tradition, but it is also a tempered gnosticism. The concrete demands are softened and transformed into a speculative mode." p137 there was one direction in which the expansion of Christianity could have been by osmosis, from hamlet to nearby hamlet: toward Syria. Theissen has made the point that one of the shifts involved in moving from the hamlet to the city had to do with language - the native languages persisted for centuries in the countryside long after the metropolitan centers had become functionally Greek, or at least with a Greek hegemony in a multi-lingual cosmopolitanism. Thus, the shift from Aramaic to Greek is less a matter of from Palestine to the Diaspora than from the hamlet to the metropolitan center, where in the case of the Diaspora the movement would tend to get stuck.. only land bridge for expansion out of Galilee hamlet by hamlet is through the Fertile Crescent, into Syria. Here the Ramaic mission could expand by small increments without any real awareness of provincial frontiers, indeed without any real need for a metropolitan point of departure. To whatever extent Jerusalem might at first have functioned as a sort of headquarters for the itinerant leader Peter from Jerusalem to Antioch might serve as a symbol for this option [hence the Prsebyterian fascination with "Greater Syria" in Kaplan's Arabists] #@# Antioch Downey Princeton 1961 [heavily refs Malalas] p107 Jews who preferred to retain their faith (and these must have been the majority) were in a politeuma which made the a quasi-autonomous unit within the Greek community, enjoying certain rights, such as being judged by their own judges according to their own law. This status was enjoyed by the Jews who lived at Alexandria and in other Hellenistic cities p108 Judea, previously under Egyptian rule, had come into Seeucid possession under Antiochus III in 200 BC. The Jews there were already divided into two camps, those who maintained strict observance of Jewish law and customs, and the "liberal" Hellenizers, who were willing to conform at least in some outward matters (such as Greek athletic exercises) to the practices of the alien culture that now dominated them. When Antiochus IV came to the throne, he found himslef involved in a series of troubles that had originated before his time among the Jews themselves. First there was a purely domestic quarrel in progress between two rival factions, the Oniads and the Tobiads, who were both Hellenizers. Then, in addition to the struggle between the Hellenizing and the "strict" Jews, there was a point of friction between the Jews who favored the Ptoemies and those who thought that their best interest lay in support of the Seleucids. In its revolt, Palestine was also seeking to take advantage of the weak position to which the Seleucid Empire had fallen after the defeat of Antiochus III by the Romans. The rebellious Jews doubtless had the moral support of Rome, though no material assistance was given them. The situation in Palestine presented a special problem in the effort which Antiochus IV was making to overcome his father's defeat by Rome; the Seleucid Empire must be unified, materially and politically, and the separatist tendencies inherent in the orthodox Jewish religion must be overcome p111 As to the presence at Antioch of a synagogue (later a church) dedicated to the Maccabean martyrs there can be little doubt; but it cannot be considered proven that the martyrdoms took place at Antioch p498 At Antioch, the first incident recorded was a clash in the hippodrome between the Greens and the Blues, the two principal circus factions originally formed to support rival charioteers but which came to have the additional function of political and religious parties. In Antioch at this time the Greens represented the Monophysites and the local Syrian elements in the population, while the Blues, traditionally the conservative and aristocratic party, supported orthodoxy and thus represented the interests of the central government p499 The Greens attacked the Blues and their Jewish allies in the hippodrome and killed a number of them, and then plundered and burned a synagogue named for Asabinus.. The Greens attacked the synagogues and burned it, and dug up and burned on a pyre the bodies of the Jews who were buried there.. Malalas reports that when Zeno, who was favorable to the Greens, was told of this incident, he was angry with the Greens because they had burned only dead Jews and had not thrown living ones on the fire #@# Brock&Harvey Holy Women Syr Orient UCal 1987 ISBN 0-520-05705-8 p4 Syriac developed specifically as a language of Christian peoples. It originated in the region of Edessa (modern Urfa, in southeast Turkey) as a dialect of Aramaic, the language of first-century Palestine. During the first and second centuries AD, Syriac spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean realm as the language of the Christian community. By the Syrian Orient.. Mespotamia, Oshoene, and Syria.. and Adiabene (modern Iraq) p5 goverend by Romans or Persians.. eastern Syrians were a religious minority in an empire largely Zoroastrian, the western Syrians were a minority of a different kind. They share the faith but not the culture of their rulers p6 Christianity first emerged in the Syrian Orient out of the Jewish communities, largely independent of the Greco-Latin churches to the west, and with a powerful spirituality born of Semitic tradition rather than that of classical Greece and Rome p7 The region has become notorious with scholars for fostering groups of gnostic inclinations; Marcionites most notably, Valentinians, Messalians, and the curiously syncretistic Manichaeans all made deep marks on the face of Syria Chrsitianity. What these groups shared, and what would emerge as a peculiarly poignant trait of Syriac spirituality, was an ascetic understanding of religious faith. For the extremist groups the understanding was based on a dualistic view of the cosmos - that the temporal, physical world is inferior to the spiritual one, if not an outright channel for evil, and that the spiritual world is the only true and good realm of the divine p9 Nowhere else in Christendom does one find so profound a sense that religious behavior is equivalent to religious belief. The believer's very life, in the most mundane sense, manifested the essence of faith. Thus the early fourth-century bishop and ascetic Aphrahat the Persian wrote a treatise on faith in which he listed the following practices to be necessary for Chrsitian life: pure wisdom, pure prayer, love, alms, meekness, virginity, holiness, wisdom, hospitality, simplicity, patience, long suffering, mourning, and purity [Patriological_Syriaca Paris 1894] Aphrahat here speaks of the vocation of all believers as demanding a manner of life that in Western Christianity (and a little later in Syriac Christianity) was restricted to monastics p10 A tremendous movement accompanied these events to bring the various areas of Christendom into conformity with the mainstream orthodox church (largely Greco-Latin) as defined at Nicea. In the Syrian Orient, changes under this movement were slow to come but deep in impact. One of the most significant changes was conforming to a structure in which asceticism was a separate vocation within the church, apart from and exclusive of the life of the laity.. Furthermore, the marking off of the ascetic life and the growth of the monastic institution retained certain distinctively Syrian features: 1. The convistion that the ascetic life was integral to the life of the worshipping community was maintained. The ascetic did not lead a life of isolated withdrawal but was inimately involved.. 2. There continued an appreciation for the individual vistuoso of ascetic practice p11 However, what must be remembered is the drenching power of symbolism for Syriac spirituality and its breathtaking pursuit of biblical imagery.. dellicacy and vibrancy of Syriac poetry in Late Antiquity made a lasting impression on the hymnography of the orthodox chuches #@# Mircea Eliade HistReligIdeas 1985 Chicago ISBN 0-226-20404-9 [Romanian Jungian] p31 In the seventeenth century, the Russian priests asked the peasants: "have you gone to Mokosh?" The Czechs invoked her during droughts p32 old chthonic Mother-Goddess Mati_syra_zemlja ("the HumidEarth Mother"), whose cult survived into the nineteenth century.. Polycephalism is found among certain Indo-European peoples (eg the tricephalic figure of the Gauls, the "Thracian Knight" of two or three heads, etc) but it also is attested among Finno-Ugrians.. with whom the Proto-Slavs present a number of analogies p33 Beyond the Indo-European heritage and the Finno-Ugrian and Iranian influences, one can identify still more archaic strata.. pan-Slavic custom, unknown among the Indo-Europeans, is the double-sepulcher. After three, five or seven years, one disinters the bones, washes them, and wraps them p34 As with other European ethnic groups, Slavic religious folklore, beliefs, and customs conserve a great part of the more or less Christianized pagan heritage. Particular interest is attached to the pan-Slavic concept of the Spirit of the Forest p36 For a long time after their conversion to Christianity, it was through the lens of this myth that the peoples of eastern Europe still justified the actual situation of the world and the human condition. The existence of the Devil has never been contested by Christianity. But the role of the Devil in the cosmogeny was a "dualist" innovation, one which assured these legends their enormous success and prodigious circulation. It is hard to be certain whether the ancient Slavs shared other dualistic notions of the Iranian or Gnostic type p52 unlimited parcelling out of the martyr's body and by the fact that one could multiply relics indefinitely [compare Jewish tefillin phylacteries].. cult attained a considerable popularity by the sixth century. In the eastern Empire, this excessive devotion sometimes became embarassing for the ecclesiatical authorities.. Agapes and banquets took place around the altar (mensa). The ecclesiatical authorities strove tirelessly to subordinate the veneration of saints and the cult of relics to the service of Christ. Finally, in the fifth centuries, numerous basilicas procured relics.. gradual transformation of the martyria into regular churches p54 sought to place one's graves as near as possible to the tomb of the saint in the hope that the latter would defend the deceased before God on the Day of Judgement.. Around the end of the ninth century, it was presumed that all the churches possessed (or ought to possess) relics.. Indeed, one can consider the veneration of relics as an "easy parallel" (that is to say accessible to the laity) of the dogmas of the incarnation, the Trinity, and the theology of the sacraments p56 First of all, the unequalled vitality of the Byzantine liturgy, its hieratic pomp, its rutual and at the same time artistic splendor. The Pseudo-Areopagite warned those who had experienced the divine mystagogy, "Take care not to disclose in sacrilegious fashion the holy mysteries among all mysteries. Be prudent and honor the divine secret" p57 The Incarnation of the Logos had made theosis possible, but it is always the grace of God whic effectuates it. It is this which explains the importance of the interior prayer (later "uninterrupted prayer"), the contemplation, and the monastic life in the Eastern Church. Deification is preceded or accompanied by an experince of mystical light. Already among the Desert father, ecstasy manifested itslef through phenomena of light.. polemic aroused by their assertion that they enjoyed the vision of the uncreated Light provided the occassion for the great thinker Gregory Palamas (fourteenth century) to elaborate a mystical theology around the Taboric light [hyperventilatory hallucination] p58 The only significant Eastern influence on Western theology has been that of Dyonysius the (Pseudo-) Areopagite. His true identity and biography are unknown. He was probably a fifth-century Syrian monk, but as he was believed to have been a contemporary of Saint Paul, he enjoyed almost apostolic authority. The theology of the Areopagite is inspired by Neoplatonism and by Gregory of Nyssa.. small teatise named Mystical_Theology that is the basis of his extraordinary prestige p59 Following the ban proclaimed in the Decalogue, Christians of the first two centuries did not fashion images. But in Eastern Europe, the ban was ignored from the third century on.. innovation followed upon the blossoming of the cult of the relics. In the fourth and fifth centuries, the number of images multiplied and their veneration became more pronounced.. principal argument of the iconophiles was the pedagogical function - especially for the illiterate - and the sanctifying virtues of the images. It is only toward the end of the sixth and during the seventh centuries that the images became the objects of cultic devotion p61 As regards the icons of the saints, John of Damascus writes: "As long as the lived, the saints were filled with the Holy Spirit, and after their death, the grace of the Holy Spirit is never far from their sould, their tombs, or their holy images." To be sure, the icons ought not ot be adored in the same manner in which one would adore God. But they belonged to the same category of objects sanctified by the presence of Jesus Christ - as, for example, Nazareth, Golgotha, or the wood of the Corss. THese places and objects have become the "recipients of divine energy" [compare Jewish objects of merit] #@# Schmemann HistRdEOrth svots.edu 1977 (1963 Holt, tr L Kesich) p9 fundamental principles of Orthodox worship were determined almost entirely by the Temple and the synagogue p18 expulsion of Christians from Jerusalem by force.. crowning point of their own Jewish tradition; they did not yet comprehend her universal, pan-human mission p21 Suetonius states that the Emperor Claudius banished all Jews from Rome in the year 49 AD because the question of "a certain Christ" had provoked outbreaks of disorder among them p23 Judeo-Christians which continued to regard the observance of Mosaic law.. tradition the so-called apostolic council in Jerusalem has remained the model.. James, the head of that Church, who summed up the deliberations and proposed a solution.. freeing the converted Gentiles from Judaic law - thereby freeing them from being included in the Jewish nation - the Church demonstrated that she was now fully conscious of her world-wide vocation p27 no less than four million Jews living in the Diaspora, whereas the whole Roman population totalled fifty million.. contrast to the Palestinian rabbis, the Jews of the Diaspora felt a need to explain their faith to the outer world.. Alexandrian Jew Philo tried to express the faith of his fathers in the categories of Greek thought. The pagans, meanwhile, were showing a growing interest.. Jews, not by blood.. synagogues that covered the whole empire [Josephus in Ag_Apion mentions the Romans were appalled that by not practising infanticide and sodomy, the Jews were overpopulating the Empire] p28 Constantine's conversion at the beginning of the fourth century they [Christians] were still less than 10 per cent p30-2 head of the community stood the bishop. His authority was unique. Appointed by the apostles or their successors, the other bishops, he was the head and source of the Church's life.. presbyters replaced the bishop and became his fully-empowered deputies.. destruction of Jerusalem, the apostolic sees (or "seats") of Rome, Antioch, Ephesus and Alexandria p36-7 distract attention from himself, Nero shifted the blame.. martyrdom of Peter and Paul in Rome in this period, perhaps under Nero, and of John the Evangelist in the East under Domitian (81-96).. structure of Roman judiciary enabled Christians to exist even under this condemnation. Rome had no state prosecutor; a private accuser had to bring a case against each Christian.. single denunciation was enough for the irrevocable process of accusation to result in death.. two entire centuries, the line of martyrs was never really interrupted.. condemnation by the world, is a central experience.. witness; by accepting suffering and death he affirmed that the rule of death had ended, that life had triumphed. He died not for Christ but with Him, and in Him he also received life p39 not of rapprochement between Athens and Jerusalem, but rather of a struggle through which there took place a gradual "churching" of Hellenism which was to fertilize Christian thought forever after p41 struggle with Gnosticism came a whole metamorphosis of the Church, trnsforming it into a structured, monolithic organization fortified by the authority of the hierarchy and official doctrine.. Gnostics referred to secret legends and created a whole apocryphal.. Fragments of such Gnostic "gospels" have come down to us, written in the names of Peter, James, Paul, and John p44 middle of the second century the Christian apologist Tatian composed the first harmony, or code, of the Gospels p45 For Irenaeus [of Lyons, Against Heresies] the gospels of the Gnostics are false because they are alien to the witness of the apostles: "Only that Gospel is true which was handed down from the apostles and is preserved from their time by orthodox bishops without additions or omissions" p47 In the period of primitive Christianity the Church was a community of "saints," that is, baptized, dedicated, and thus newly-purified members of the Body of Christ, and every sin was felt to be a terrible abnormality p48 "second repentance" was made possible to the excommunicant, permitting him to return to the Church and restoring the forfeited power of baptism. As gradually developed, this new chance for sinners was guarded by the requirement of confession; prolonged evidence of repentance, including various source of penance; and reinstatement only by stages in the freedom of Christians to worship together and partake of sacraments p49 development of a "discipline of repentance" - an obvious lowering of standards - does not mean a change in the Churches original ideal, but a fulfillment of its eternal task, the salvation and renewal of man.. was not yet final. Only in the last divine revelation, in the coming of the Holy Spirit, would salvation occur. This "new prophecy" had been sent by God through Montanus and his two prophetesses p51 Alexandrian school was that it was the first to attempt to reason out these dogmas as an integrated system p52 Everything is permissible if it is taken in moderation, but particularly if it is subordinated to the knowledge of God and the truth in him... Origen was one of the founders of the theory of asceticism and his influence was immense when, in the next century, monasticism arose p56 Origen started the gradual process of Christianizing Hellenism.. Perhaps without his "creative failure" the eventual triumph of Christian Hellenism would have been impossible.. Emperor Alexander Severus placed a statue of Christ in his private chapel; and finally St Jeorme called Emperor Philip the Arabian the first Christian emperor p57 Except for Nero, Decius was the first representative of Roman power to take the initiative in these persecutions as opposed to the system of private accusation followed by test. In a special edict he ordered all his subjects to prove their loyalty to the national gods by making the sacrifice p58-9 persecution passed like a whirlwind and quickly abated, but it left the Church in ruins. The question arose as to how to deal with those who had lapsed, who now rushed back for forgiveness and reconciliation..mass occurence.. "confessors" - those who had confessed their faith in Christ and paid for their faithfulness by imprisonment or torture. The Roman state had learned by experience and preferred not to create martyrs; it therefore left the steadfast Christians to rot in jail.. their authority was indisputable, and they recommended to the bishop that he accept the lapsed.. Some could be received only on their deathbeds, while others could rejoin after more or less prolonged periods of repentance.. new schism of Novatianism spread through all the churches, creating everywhere sects of the "pure" [vs exlapsed] p64 Greco-Roman world toward belief in a single God.. Constantine was a typical representative of this new religious state of mind. According to his first Christian biographer, Eusebius of Caesaria, his father had already "dedicated to the One God his children, his wife, his servants, and his whole palace" pp65-6 crowned at York, Britain, in 306.. Not until his deathbed, twenty-five years after the battle of Milvian Bridge, did he receive baptism.. been his dream to be baptized in the Jordan p68 Constantine grew angry - "What madness to plead for judgement from a man who himself awaits the judgement of Christ!" - but again yielded. WHen he was finally convinced, after so many investigations, that the Donatists were in the wrong, he let loose the full blast of state persecution upon them - the last and most terrible of his errors in the matter.. beginning of the end for the great and glorious African Church p77 first time, after centuries of semi-subterranean existence, prelates gathered from all parts of the Church, many still with the marks of wounds.. designated it for the twentieth anniversary of his reign p78-9 easily accepted the condemnation of Arianism, which too obviously distorted the original tradition; but the constructive doctrine about the Trinity contained in the term homoousion ("of one substance") was a different matter.. For most of the bishops, however, the word was incomprehensible.. Constantine, who repeated his action against the Donatists by exiling Arius and his followers.. turned their intrigues againstthe young Athanasius, recently elected bishop of Alexandria and probably the oving spirit in the creation of the new term p81 At first, it is true, the Eusebians had to give way. Constantine II demanded that all the exiled bishops be returned to their thrones. Athanasius, who had never recognized his dethronement and had been supported by the Western churches, was met with love by the people of Alexandria. But the Eusebians had a strong weapon against him: he had been dethroned by a council of bishops, and only a council could restore him p83 Roman bishops were more and more inclined to regard their primacy, which no one disputed, as a special power, and their "presiding in love" as presiding in power and authority. Thus in 190-192, Pope Victor demanded in an ultimatum that the Eastern churches accept the Roman practice of celebrating Easter.. on the first Sunday after the Jewish Passover, while in the East it coincided with the Jewish holiday p85 Athanasius appealed to Rome because he had no one left.. Eusebians wrote to Rome to make their condemnation of Athanasius universal.. But Pope Julius interpreted them in his own way, in the light of the gradually developing, specifically Roman tradition p87 homoousion seemed to them an alien and dangerous term, and they found confirmation of their fears in the heresy of Marcellus of Ancyra, who had returned to the Sabellian confusion of the Son with the Father. Yet Rome had accepted Marcellus. Thus we cannot speak of a struggle between the orthodox West and the heretical East [ditto German Arians, Pelagians and Pope Honorius] p89 in hiding he wrote his Apology to_Constantius, which was devastating for the emperor, and his History_of the_Arians, in which he laid bare the whole theological dialectic of the post-Nicene dispute. In the face of triumphant force, he [Athanasius] alone remained undaunted p93 last triumph of Nicaea, the Second Ecumenical Council p96 But behind the worship of idols, actually making it far less promitive, lay a very particular and integrated perception of the world, a complex of ideas and beliefs deeply rooted in man, which it was no easy matter to eliminate [cf Podhoretz Prophets] p98 Tertullian, has always asserted that the human soul is "by nature a Christian," and therefore even natural religion - even paganism itself - is only a distortion of something by nature true and good [flawed mem of Eden] p101 cult of saints, even of its monstrous distortions.. summoned the people to Him by whom this saint had lived and to whom he had completely given himself p102 objective truth, independent of everything else in the world, was proclaimed superior to all powers and authorities.. mind of modern man was in the making: his faith in reason and freedom, his fearlessness in encountering reality whatever it might be p105 Solitude, struggle against one's thoughts, "concentration of attention," impassivity, and so forth - all allegedly entered Christianity through the ascetic stream which in that period was growing.. connected with dualism.. Manichaeism p112 Chrysostom was more than a great preacher; he built houses and shelters for the poor, exposed the rich, and attacked luxury.. all evil, he claimed, proceeds from "these cold words: mine and thine".. "Put God in the place of your slaves; you grant them freedom in your wills. But free Christ from hunger, from the want of prison, from nakedness" p120 Constantinople was not allotted any region, and formally its bishop continued to be one of th ebishops of the diocese of Thrace, headed by the metropolitan of Heraclea p122 Aristotle on the Antiochenes and of Plato on the Alexandrians; the opposition between Semitic realism and Hellenistic idealism p124 Cyril felt that the whole essence of salvation lay in the unity of God and man in Christ, that unique Personality in whom all men came in touch with the Father, and He perceived a ???dimunistion and denial of this in the Nestorian rejection of Theotokos.. Constantinople greeted this protest with displeasure. There the sad case of Chrysostom was still well remembered; the bishop of Constantinople had been condemned unjustly and without a hearing by a council under the chairmanship of Theophilus of Alexandria, Cyril's uncle, and Cyril himself had taken part in the condemnation. Those were the years when the bishops of Alexandria had tried to put a limit to the uninterrupted growth of Constantinople's ecclesiastical influence p125 Cyril sent examples of Nestorius' teachings to Pope Celestine; they were sharply condemned by the local expert on Eastern matters, John Cassian, an abbot of Marseilles. In August 430 a council of bishops under the leadership of the pope condemned the doctrine of Nestorius. The bishop of Constantinople was given ten days from the time he received the Roman decision to recant p126-30 "One nature of God the Word Incarnate." Cyril had thought this was a quotation from Athanasius the Great, but the phrase had actually been composes by Apollinarius.. signed his works with the names of undisputed Church authorities.. Easterners should gather at Ephesus in alarm; while not wholly in agreement with Nestorius, they came primarily to expose and condemn the heresy of Cyril.. feared to act openly since the whole city was for Cyril.. caravan of Easterners finally arrived.. own council.. Roman legate, who arrived last, joined Cyril.. Cyril's council held several more sessions. It affirmed the Nicene Creed, forbidding anything to be added to it.. indignant at Cyril's procedure, silently accepted his condemnation. It can be truly said that the condemnation of Nestorius was accepted by the whole.. restore peace by removing the controversial individual from each camp: Nestorius and Cyril.. Nestorius himself resigned.. Gradually most of the Easterners also signed.. language of Antioch, but in accepting it Cyril conceded nothing p133 Ephesus on August 8,449.. "Synod of Robbers".. beatings and pressure from th epolice, all the necessary decisions were made.. Leo immediately send abassadors.. Theodosius was dead.. Another ecumenical council, first assigned to Nicaea but later transfered to Chalcedon p136 famous twenty-eight canon.. bishop of Constantinople was allotted the dioceses of Pontus, Asia, and Thrace and the bishops of barbarian peoples subject to these dioceses [actually Diaspora] p139 In the outskirts of Antioch, John Chrysostom [347-407; Nesselrode Uspensky dischronic phyletism] was obliged to preach in Syrian; Greek was no longer understood there. Modern research demonstrates with increasing clarity that the Syrian and Coptic masses felt the power of the empire to be a hated yoke [Marxist trash debunked by Jones JTS59] p140 When they backed Cyril and rioted at the Synod of Robbers, the monks were openly defending their own Church from the alien imperial center that was creeping in on them.. ethnic passions that had seethed beneath the surface found an outlet in Monophysitism, and the struggle against "two natures" threatened to turn into a rebellion against the empire itself. When the bishops returned from Chalcedon, they were met in many places by popular opposition. In order to bring the Patriarch Juvenal to his city of Jerusalem, troops had to intervene. In Alexandria the soldiers who were guarding Patriarch Proterius, appointed by Constantinople to replace the deposed Dioscurus, were locked in the Caesareum by an inflamed mob and burned alive. At first the governmnet resorted to force and tried to impose the terms of Chalcedon [ploy of Nesselrode-Uspensky-Aflaq to make Nestorians & other Arabs allies against the Turks, also debunked by Jones JTS59] p141 484, and so began the first schism with Rome, which lasted for about thirty years until 518. thus, by trying to preserve the Monophysite East, Constantinople lost the orthodox West p146 But the fatal element of Justinian's theory lies in the fact that there is simply no_place_for the_Church in it. by planting Christianity sincerely and deeply at the heart of all official acts, the great emperor actually managed not to see the Church, and therefore based his whole concept of the Christian world on false presupposition p154 Justinian resolved to settle still more firmly with paganism and with its citadel, the university of Athens, which had recently been basking in the glory of the last of its great pagan philosophers, Proclus. In 529 the university was closed and replace by the first Christian university, in Constantinople. Campaigns of mass conversion began in the capital and Asia Minor. The few remaining pagans were obliged to go permanently undergound.. papacy. Its authority was unshakable, even among the German barbarians, although they belong officially to Arianism.. papacy remained true to the empire, regardless of strained relations between them. The price of reconciliation between the churches, however, was the signing by the patriarch and the bishops of a document composed by Pope Hormisdad which was more violently papistic in content than anything the Eastern Church had ever seen before p155 masses rioted, whole monasteries had to be dispersed.. Only Palestine was wholly orthodox.. Justinian's support of orthodoxy and Theodora's of Monophysitism they claim was a political maneuver to preserve unity.. expelled monks were allowed to return to their monasteries. A huge number of them settled right next door to the emperor himself, where for decades they were a center of secret Monophysite intrigues around Theodora pp156-7 help of Theodora a certain Bishop John, exiled for heresy, succeeded in being transferred to the capital on the pretext of needing medical attention, and here concealed from th epolice by the empress, he began to consecrate priests in hi sown house.. another sect bishop, Jacob Baradai "the Ragged," travelled through Syria in the guise of a beggar.. consecrated bishoped as well. The latter soon elected their own Monophysite patriarch.. Copts and Syrians thus established their national Church.. not tragic that one ofthe main reasons for the rejection of Orthodoxy by almost the whole non-Greek East was its hatred for the empire? A hundred years later the Syrians and Copts would greet their Mohammedan conquerors as saviors [Then why were so many martyrs for their faith?] pp158-9 not Origen alone, butthe whole Alexandrian tradition with its interest in mystical and spiritual interpretation of the Scriptures, and its ideal of gnosis as a higher way, and deification.. sixth century these disputes and doubts about Origen, which had never really died down among the monks, overstepped the desert boundaries [gosh, thought were misHellenes, awaiting arrival of Nesselrode's Uspensky] p164 not accidental that the council condemend both Origen and the most extreme representatives of the school of Antioch p165 Justinian had behaved rudely, and much in the history of his reign is darkened forever by his rudeness.. monks rioting in the churches and squares p167 But those who seemed on one day crushed by state absolutism were glorified on the next as saints, and the empire was obliged to revere the heroism of their opposition and their indomitable freedom of spirit. It is enough to mention once more the names Athansasius, Chrysostom, Euphemius, and Macedonius.. When Justinian, just before his death, indulged once more his personal passion for theologizing and attempted to impose, again by state edict, the dogma of the incorruptibility of Christ's body (a subtle question which divided the Monophysites at the time), the overwhelming majority of the bishops firmly and decisively declared that they preferred exile to acceptance of heresy. He died without taking further measures p172 Christological dispute the East was torn from Byzantine Orthodoxy, preferring the historical and theological dead ends of Monophysitism and Nestorianism to enslavement under the Orthodox empire. From this point of view the victory of Islam itself must be seen in relation to the first deep religious and political crisis in the Christian world p173 Monothelitism was an attempt to interpret Chacledon in a way acceptable to the Monophysites. It was not a rejection of it but an explanation and adaptation p178 council anathematized the leaders of the heresy, the four patriarchs of Constantinople - Sergius, Paul, Pyrrhus, and Timothy - as well as Cyrus of Alexandria and Pope Honorius, whose condemnation by an ecumenical council has constantly been referred to by the Orthodox as proof that the ancient Church ignored any doctrine of papal infallibility. On the other hand, those mainly responsible, the emperors Heraclius and Constas, were passed over in silence. Nor was mention made of the two martyrs for the truth, St Martin the Pope and St Maximus the Confessor p180 Apostolic_Tradition of St Hippolytos of Rome, a document of the first half of the third century, a newly-elected bishop was always consecrated amid the congregeation of the Church to which he was elected.. bishop's marriage to the Church, according to St Paul's teaching in the Epistle to the Ephesians.. remained in his Church to the end of his days, so that a Church which had lost its bishop was called "widowed".. fourth century we encounter bishops shifting from one see to another.. Bishops were increasingly accepted as assistants, represntatives, and executives of the orders of central power, and a new institution naturally developed which had been absolutely unknown in the early Church: the episcopal synod of the patriarch p181 synod of Constantinople was formed almost haphazardly, being composed of bishops who happened to be passing through the capital.. time of Justinian and the separation of the churches, the orthodox Chalcedonian bishops of Antioch and Alexandria, competeing with local Monophysite hierarchy, were not local men but appointed from Constantinople.. patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria became leaders of small groups of Melkites [?! also p142], or Greek minorities in a Monphysite sea p185 pagans had celebrated the birth of the Invincible Sun on December 25; Christians allotted to this date the celebration of the birthof Christ, which taught men "to honor the Sun of Righteousness and to come to know it from the height of the East" The pagans had celebrated an "epiphany" on January 6, whichbecame the date of Christian Epiphany as well. The ecclesiastical cult of "Unmercenary Saints" had much in common with the pagan cult of the Dioscuri; the fors of the Christian saint's life with the models of pagan eulogies of heroes; and finally, the explanation of the Christian sacraments to the catechumens with the mysterial terminology of pagan instituions [cf German Christmas trees and Russian toll houses, also soviet mokoshism] p186 even Christian rites and sacred objects may themselves become senters of pagan veneration and may overshadow what they solely exist for: the liberating force of truth.. 530 a Byzantine monk, Barsanuphius, attacked "mechanical" religiosity p190 Byzantine liturgy in its dual form, that of Chrysostom and of Basil the Great, gradually squeezed out the ancient Alexandrian liturgy known bythe name of St Mark, as well as the Antionchene liturgy of St James [Yakov, Giacomo, Jacques], brother of the Lord p194 very earliest texts of the services for the Mother of God to be convinced that veneration of her not only did not eclipse the Christocentricism of the early Church.. Mother, from whom all humanity gained sonship on the Cross, an image of complete purity, meekness, love and self-abnegation p195 While the Bible remained the basic content and framework of the services, it had always been - the psalms, the Old Testament hymns, the reading - this framework increasingly included the creations of Church hymn writers: kontakia, stichera, and canons. First comes St Romanos Melodus p198 Byzantium can in no way be considered merely a complteted and outlived chapter of Church history. Not only does it continue to live in the Orthodox Church, but in a sense still defines Orthodoxy itself p200 ban on human images, and attempt at a certain psychological compromise wit Islam; others, the first revolt against the Church of a secular culture inspired by the emperors, and a struggle for the liberation of art from the Church; while a third group has detected a new outburst of the perennial Hellenic "spritualism" p201 painting of the catacombs.. art had to become transcendental p204 "Many think," wrote St Athanasius of Sinai, "that he sufficiently reveres his baptism who, entering the church, kisses all the icons withou paying any attention to the Liturgy and the divine service".. lost touch with this foundation and, changing into something self-contained, lapsed back into paganism.. Iconoclastic sentiments appeared at the very befinning of the eighth century among the bishops of the easter borderlands p208 "honor rendered to the image ascends to its prototype and he who reveres an icon is worshiping the hypostasis of the one portrayed" p209 Palm Sunday 815, thousands of Studite monks moved through the city in procession, carrying icons.. bloody persecution began.. final victory of Orthodoxy once again came through a woman. The Empress Theodora p210 St John of Damascus was only repeating the words of St Maxim the Confessor when he declared, "It is not the business of Caesar to engage in definitions of the faith".. outset of the struggle with iconocalsm the number of monks in Byzantium had reached a hundred thousand p211 lost to the army, the vast property of the monks escaped taxation, a whole section of the population was found to be outside state control.. monasteries had grown rich, and privileges of every sort had now begun to attract some who had little interest in the pursuit of Christian perfection.. empire was perishing, and the Isaurian emperors saved it at the price of a terrible straining.. total mobilization - similar to that of Russia under Peter the Great - was bound to give rise to questions about monsaticism.. p225 Now the basic concern of the emperors became the desire not to allow any religious disturbance, but to foster a sort of religious status_quo. Orthodoxy coincided with conservatism down to the very letter of tradition. Iconocalsm revealed for the last time the dangerous fact that religious passions could turn into political discord p226 John of Damascus.. De_Fide_Orthodoxa has remained the summation of Greek theology p230 For in Byzantium istelf in the last years of its existence we perceive a sudden return to pure Hellenism and to philosophical problems that once seemed to be solved in patristic theology p232 St Simeon the New Theologian (949-1022).. "communion with the Divine Light" which had been the purpose of monastic asceticism from the start p233-5 founder of this regulated monasticism on Athos is considered St Athansius of Athos, in whose time the famous laura that bears his name was established (960). In the twelfth century, under Emperor Alexius Comnenus, Athos was finally sanctioned as the recognized center of Byzantine monasticism. All the threads of speculative theology by which Eastern monasticism had lived since the time of the dessert Fathers converged here, and in the late Byzantine period Athos was the center of an intense theological life.. opponents of Hesychasm felt.. uncreated Light on Mt Tabor bordered on pantheism. The dispute came to concern the theological question of the nature of light of the Transfiguration.. St Gergory Palamas, a monk of Athos and later archbishop of Thessalonica (1296-1359).. defense of the Hesychasts. Catholic historians have frequently interpreted his doctrine as an unprecedented innovation.. completes and renews in a creative way the most authentic and basic tendency in the Orthodox view of Christianity.. divine energies that permeate the world p236 Prof F I Uspensky [1892] has attempted to reduce.. philosophers and mystics, he maintains, stem from Plato, while the official doctrine of the Church, including that of St John of Damascus, is expressed in the language of Aristotle p241 'The Easterners not only did not object in time to the growing mystique of papal dogmas," wrote a Russian historian [Duchesne, Paris, 1905], "they not only silently signed the papal formulations, but they themselves, by their appeals to Rome, heedless of the juridical implications, supported the sincere illusions of the Romans that the Greeks, too, shared the Western concept of the papacy" p248-50 give back the south Italian dioceses then under the jurisdiction of the patriarch.. concealed from the patriarch.. decided to prove to the weak and indecisive emperor the independence and strength.. Almost all the Byzantine arguments against the Latin rites have long since become unimportant, and only the genuinely dogmatic deviations of Rome have remained.. Donation of_Constantine.. Today everyone recognizes its spurious character.. stating that the Church of Constantinople was in error, sinful, scandalous (even ruled by women!).. summer of 1054 papal legates arrived.. leaders of papal reform, who later prepared the way for its flourishing under Gregory VII (Hildebrand). The emperor was still relying on his political agreement with the pope.. St Simeon the New Theologian, who had also criticized Rome, was obliged by imperial order to condemn publicly anf burn his writings..morning of July 16, 1054, when the people were assembled in St Sophia for the liturgy, they entered the sanctuary and placed on the altar the bull of excommunication.. legates overestimated the strength of the emperor.. popular rebellion.. emperor was forced to think of his own safety p251 1204, with the capture of Constantinople, the barbarous sacking of the city, the profaning of Orthodox sacred p253 Church actually rejected them all, despite the pressure.. Florence.. torment of the Greeks, who were fearful of the destruction of the empire by Islam and persecuted by financial pressure from the Latins - for they even lacked funds to return home p256-7 862 the Slavic Prince Rostislav of Moravia sent a request to Constantinople for missionaries who could help hims strengthen Christianity among the Slavs.. mission to the Slavs, beginin under the dual blessing of Byzantium and Rome.. Methodius stayed farther south with the Pannonian Prince Kotzel, who shared Rostislav's views on strengthening Christianity among the Slavs as a defense against Germanism.. 794 one of the Western councils had forbidden the celebration of the liturgy in any language but Latin, Greek, or Hebrew; technically, Methodius had broken the law.. Rome, which again supported Methodius p258-61 Bulgaria.. first great Slavic state.. paradoxical dualism of their relations with Byzantium.. military dream of conquest.. constant goal of the Slavic 'empires." On the other hand they had a profound, almost religious respect for it, wanted to imitate.. Bulgar khan was immediately baptized, almost on the battlefield (869), and his godfather was the Emperor Michael II himself. But what Boris had feared indeed came to pass: the bodyguard began to rebel. The newly-baptized prince inundated them in blood, but understood the omens and immediately took measures to procure ecclesiastical independence from Byzantium.. meant acceptance of Byzantine citizenship.. Now Boris began his manipulations.. appealed to Rome.. Nicholas I, enemy of Photius and one of the founders of the medieval papacy, seized joyfully on the opportunity to establish power in the East.. Boris wated a patriarch and religious autonomy. The papacy was even less favorably incline dto this than Byzantium.. semi-autnompous Bulgarian archbishopric.. concession out of necesssity, not because they had rejected one iota of the idea of Byzantiums's ecclesiastical monopoly p262-6 disciples of Methodius who had been driven out of Moravia came to Bulgria.. sent Clement, leader of Methodius' disciples, to th eregion of Ochrida in the wes of the kingdom, where the work of Cyril and Methodius had found it first fertile soil.. Christianity really developed within his soul.. passed the night in prayer. After ruling for thirty-six years, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son and withdrew to a monastery.. once more.. grandson Simeon,, (892-927) Bulgaria achieved its apogee. He had himself been educated in Byzantium, where he had studied "the rhetoric of Demosthenes and the syllogisms of Aristotle".. Almost his whole reign was spent in warfare against Byzantium.. appealed to Rome, and received the title of "Emperor" for himself and of "Patriarch" for his archbishop. True, this was pure fiction; there was no acceptance of Rome in Bulgaria at the time.. cultural blossoming under Simeon "the Hellenization of Bulgaria".. translation of Byzantine writers.. replacement of the Glagolitic (Slavic) alphabet, which had been invented by Cyril, by the Cyrillic (mistakenly attributed to Cyril), which appeared about the same time and more resembled the Greek.. Dvornik has said that Bulgaria was "Slavic by language, Byzantine by ?soirit?, and became the bearer of Byzantinism to the other Slavs, the Serbs and especially the Russians".. Once he had eliminated his enemy, it is true, Basil showed magnanimity: Bulgarian nobles were given Byzantine titles and the archbishopric of Ochrida received an apparent autonomy, but in naother, Byzantine sence.. Just when Orthodox Byzantium was falling under the blows of the Crusaders (1204) Kalojan was crowned by a Roman cardinal "Emperor of the Bulgars and Vlachs." Yet this did not prevent him from making war upon the Latin masters of Constantinople, capturing Emperor Baldwin, and, despite all intercessons of the popw, putting him to death. The unity of Christian peoples was becoming more a bitter parody. Later the orientation changed again and Ivan Asen (1218-41) entered into an "Orthodox coalition" with the Greek emperors of Nicaea, receiving in return Greek recognition of the Trnovo autonomy. Again it was recognition by necessity, which the Greeks would repudiate at their first chance pp267-9 During the intense struggle between Byzantium and Bulgaria, the Serbs fell by turns into th esphere of influence of one or the other.. 1078 the Grand Zupan Michael reeived a king's crown from Pope Gregory V.. Stephen the First-Crowned, his son,began by flirting with Rome.. changed, apparently under the influence of Stephen's younger brother. This was Sava, the monk of Athos, who there founded the famous Serbian monastery of Hilandar together with his father, the aged Nemanya, also a monk of Athos in his old age.. Sava went to Nicaea.. agreed to the autonomy.. Sava as its first archbishop.. established the ecclesiastical center of the new empire at the monastery of Zica.. crowned his borther Stephen.. St Sava was the father of both Serbian Orthodoxy and Serbian statehood.. Dushan's policy had a single aim, to capture Constantinople, unite Serbs, Bulgars, and Greeks under his rule, and eliminate the growing Turkish threat by these combined efforts. In 1346 he was crowned in his capital Skoplje, "Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks," and prior to this he had elevated the archbishop of Serbia to patriarch in Pech. He flirted with Rome, however, and was excommunicated for it by the Church of Constantinople.. Never had the dream of a Slavic replacement of Byzantium seemed so near realization. The empire was saved by Dushan's unexpected death. [regret?] p271 On May 29, 1453, after a two-day assault, the troops of Mohammed II took Constantinople. The last emperor, Constantine XI, had fallen in battle. The holy city became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria was overcome, Serbia was finally conquered in 1459, European Greece in 1495-60, Bosnia in 1463, and finally Egypt in 1517.. he had been in Constantinople before and knew Greek, and while conquering Byzantium he was attracted to it by his special sympathy for everything Greek p272 All Christians were obliged to pay an annual head tax, the haradj, to the state treasury, but it was their only obligation to their conquerors.. all the clergy wer exempted from taxes. Half the churches in Constantinople were converted to mosques.. For the Turks, who unlike the Arabs were not religious fanatics, Christianity was the national faith of the Greeks, as Mohammedanism was for the Turks. Like Judaism, Islam in general made no distinction between secular and religious society p273 patriarch became the milet_pasha or leader of the people, and the Church hierarchy were given the rights of civil administration over the Christian population p274 Shortly after, a period of politial decline set in for the Ottoman Empire, and arbitrariness, unscrupulousness, and corruption became the rule.. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.. Turkey could have been swept away by any of the European powers in this period, but Europe supported her for fear of Russia, and closed its eyes to the scandalous sufferings.. some places every Christian was slaughtered.. In the course of seventy-three years in the eighteenth century, the patrarch was replaced forty-eight times! Some were deposed and reinstalled as many as five times; many were put to tirture. The rebellions of the Janissaries were accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Churches were defled, relics cut to pieces, and the Holy Gifts profaned. Christian pogroms became more and more frequent p275 "You are laboring in vain; the Christian patriarch will die a Christian." This was on Easter Sunday, 1821 p278 domination of Greek bishops in conquered Bulgaria and their scornful attitude towards any native differences, even in language. This made the decay of the Orthodox worls inevitable and force the Slavs, like the Armenians and Syrians before them, to hate the Greeks. While the decay of Byzantine Christian universalism was an accomplished fact by the time of the Turkish conquest, the Turkish yoke, paradoxically enough, restored it. Since they made no distinction between religion and nationality p279 Byzantine patriarchs did everything they could to establish permanently the triumph of the Greeks over all the Slavic minorities they had previously been forced to recognize p280 painlessly and without embarassment accepted the prohibition against converting Moslems, thus rejecting the universal calling of the Church; but they expended great effort - aided by the Moslems - in humiliating, subjugating, and subduing their own brothers in the faith.. patriarchs of Constantinple systematically endeavored not only to subdue all the Slavic churches which had previously been autocephalic; but also to make them Greek, eliminating any mention of their Slavic past.. This canonical abuse of power was accompanied by forced "Grecisizing," particularly in Bulgaria, where it later served as the basis of the so-called Bulgarian question [ie phyletism]. The same sad picture prevailed in the East as well, in the patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, where Orthodox Arabs became the victims of this forced unification p282 It cannot be said that education died out completely during the Turkish period, but it declined and, most important, its spirit changed. Its purpose now was to preserve the spirit of Hellenism in its most extreme nationalistic form. According to a Russian traveler in Turkey in the nineteenth century [Quoted in Cyprian Kern, Archimandrite Antoine Capoustine in Russian, Belgrade, 1931] ".. pedantry and pomposity, resulting from a ridiculous desire to apply ancient Hellenic phrases in simple conversation.." [The only thing this shows is the persistent attempt to redefine Greek phrases to meet panSlav whim, such as "phyletism"].. Athenian Academy of Eugenius Bulgaris had a brief but brilliant history: "I have been told that the monks set fire to it intentionally," wrote Bishop Porphyry Uspensky, a Russian expert on the East, "for they thought that scholarship is not necessary for the life to come" p283 the first seminary was opened on the island of Chalchis in 1844.. Whole armieds of skillful propagandists wwere sent to the East, prepared in psecial schools, the most famous of which was the College of St Athanasius in Rome, opened by Pope Gregory XIII in 1577. A network of Roman episcopates covered the whole east. [still today, cf Ratlines] p284 Turks, however, who disliked and feared the Latins as "representative of European imperialism," protected the Orthodox p285 Patriarch Jeremiah II (1572-95), who subjected the Augsburg Confession, which had been sent to him, to a detailed analysis and exposed its obvious heresy.. lacking a frim foundaton in their own faith, were easily infected with the latest Western theological fashions, absorbed its theological and spiritual atmosphere, and then became teachers of the Orthodox clergy. A clear example of this process is the well-known case of Cyril Lascaris p288 Philokalia was completed, the peak of Eastern speculative experience, which by its profundity is now beginning to win over even the non-Orthodox p289 Serbian uprisings of 1804 and 1815, the Greek uprising of 1821, and Russia's war of liberation against Turkey in 1877 resulted in the rebirth of Orthodox states. Yet while national liberation freed the churches of these countries from Turkish control, it did not free them from its tragic consequences: national hostility and proud self-assertion, infection with theories alien to Orthodoxy, the subordination of the Church to the state or complete merging with it p290 1821, when an independent kingdom of Greece was founded, the Greek bishops themselves did not hesitate to be in schism with Constantinople for almost twenty years in order to obtain their own autocephalous Church; they hardly noticed that its constitution had been copied from Lutheran constitutions [via Petrine Russia], and that in general it did not recognize any boundary between Church and state p292 messianism has sometimes simply equated Orthodoxy with Russia, oblivious to its Byzantine origins and the "sleeping East.' The late S L Frank recently called this national self-infatuation "the chronic disease of the Russian mind" p298 Fedotov continues, "the Kievan experience, in spite of its brevity and fragility, may be regarded as one of the best Christian achievements" p300-2 Russian psychology was from the first marked by this ritualism and by a somewat hypertrophied, narrowly liturgical piety.. Slavic paganism did not offer fanatical opposition.. lacked organization, literature.. "soft" paganism, based on nature and profoundly bound to natural life.. doubly foreign, being Greek and coming from the prince as well, which meant support by the Varangian druzhina, the ruling clique.. bookish by its very nature.. divine service, the ritual - were easily accepted; it charmed.. feeling, imagination, and tenderness would be proclaimed as the basic points of distinction between Russian and Greek Christianity, the latter being considered calculating and cold p304 When Metropolitan Cyprian arrived in Moscow from Kiev on the instructions of the patriarch of Constantinople, who wished to restore ecclesiastical unity in Russia, Dimitri simply drove him out, as he drove out Pimen after him, who had managed by bribery to be consecrated in Constantinople [As did Brooklyn Greeks to St Tihon] p305 "Tatarism" - lack of principle and a repulsive combination of prostration before the strong with oppression of everything weak - unfortunately marked the growth of Moscow p307 complete transformation of man by the Holy Spirit and his aspiration to "life in God." This made St Sergius the center of Russian Orthodoxy in the dark years p308 The monastery is not the crown of the Christian world, but on the contrary, its inner judgement seat and accuser.. origins of the "Russian soul".. tragic discord between the vision of spiritual beauty and purity expressed in monasticism and the sence of hopeless sinfulness of life.. dualism pp312-313 Philotheus, the teaching elder of the Lazarus Monastery of Pskov.. letters to the Grand Princes Basil III and Ivan IV in Moscow, the Orthodox Church, like the wife in the Apocalypse, had first run from old to new Rome, "but found no peace there because of the union with the Latins at the Eighth Council. THen the Church of Constantinople fell, and the empire fled again to a third Rome, which is in New Great Russia... All Christian empires bow down to you alone: for two Romes are fallen, but the third stands fast; a fourth cannot be; your Christian kingdom shall not be given to another... YOu alone are Emperor over all Christians under the sun"... [Fedotov, "Russia and Freedom" in his Novyi Grad in Russian NY 1952 p145]: Tatar element had possesed the soul of Russia, not outwardly but from within.. spiritual Mongol conquest coincided with the political defeat.. thousands of baptized and unbaptized Tatars entered the service of the Prince of Moscow.. infecting it with Eastern concepts.. Freedom perished only after the liberation from the Tatars" p316 desire to fix everything, even to the smallest details of domestic life, in a definitive system and actually to convert the whole of life into ritual p319 Ivan [Terrible] was inspired by the West and did not like the "Greek faith" p323 Russian believed in the necessity for the priest as the performer of sacraments, but he had ceased to expect from him anything else - as for instance, instruction, leadership, or a moral example.. Spiritual life withdrew deeper and deeper into an underlying world; it became a mysterious underground river that never dried up in Russia pp324-7 fourteenth century Lithuania was in fact a Russian land and had claims as good as Moscow's to draw together the appanages.. marriage of Yagailo to Jadwiga of Poland in 1386, the Lithuanian kingdom was at first in personal union with Poland, and later, after the last upsurge of Lithuanian independence under Vitovt (1398) in political union.. falsehood and violence - that broke the spirit of the people and poisoned Christianity with hatred, all in the name of unia, or unification! The union of Brest-Litovsk of 1596, which started a period of bloody persecution of Orthodoxy in Galicia, Lithuania, and Volynia.. brotherhoods are the centers of resistance.. armed itself gradually with Western weapons.. Kievan Metropolitan, Peter Mogila (1633-47).. to counterbalance the Slavic-Greek school of the Brotherhood, he founded a completely Latin-Polish institute which soon engulfed that of the Brotherhood. Its program was taken from Jesuit.. Orthodoxy and Catholicism was transformed into a purely "jurisdictional".. Latin formulas and theories also began to penetrate Orthodox theology.. fathers of the new Russian school theology were two obvious Latinists, Simeon of Polotsk and Paissy Ligarid. Jesiuts appeared even in Moscow.. when the timeof Peter's reforms arrived, Russian theology would be already "Westernized"! p328-9 There were too many variants in the manuscripts. Which copies should be used for printing? The books of the Lithuanian press raised doubts about Orthodoxy, while the Russian ones were defective and contradictory.. decided to correct the books according to the Greek models.. Too frequently the authorities were questionable migrants from Greece seeking charity or profit in Moscow, who became teachers by chance.. thoughtless Grecophilia.. Greek liturgical books printed in Venice were frequently suspected by Russians to be Latinizing, like the Kievan editions of Peter Mogila p330 At a deeper level, it was the price paid for the radical antihistoricism of Byzantine theocracy, which had rejected Christianity as a way and a creative process, and had wanted to stop history by "eternal repetition" of a single all-embracing mystery.. In a certain sence the [Old Believer] schism did draw away from the Chirch its best forces.. schismatics were not so opposed to the Church as they were to the empire p332 Western absolutism, born out of struggle against the Church, denied that it had any right to be the conscience of the state and squeezed it within the narrow framework of "ministering to spiritual needs," which the state itself defined [still today] p333 Through the institution of the synod the Church became a governmental department.. all the principles of the Protestant territorial Church p335 Peter himself, in his ecclesiatical transformations, had relied on the Kievans and had used them to replace the native Russian bishops. Therefore the Russian divinity school (twenty-six seminaries were opened before 1750) was a Latin school in language and in the spirit of its teaching.. rupture.. still prayed in Slavic but theologized in Latin p337 also an obvious rebirth of monasticism in Russia and a new, unforgettable resurgence of holiness in the synodal period. The eighteenth century was illumined by St Tihon of Zadonsk (1724-82), and the early nineteenth century by the wonderful light of St Seraphim of Sarov, the elders of Optina Pustyn p338 Russian literature was born from the "Western injection" p339 Slavophiles too, were the fruit of German idealism, of Hegel [father of Stalinism and Hitlerism!] and Schelling #@# Vladmir Lossky, Mystical Theology, StVlad 1976 (1944) ISBN 0-913836-31-1 p25 Dionysius.. cataphatic ..[vs].. apophatic.. is of His very nature unknowable.. leads us finally to total ignorance p45 apophatic theology in order to rid ourselves of concepts proper to human thought p52 Three in Properties, or Hypostases, or Persons.. divided indivisibly.. conjoined dividedly p83 Son is called Logos not only because He is begotten without passion, but also because He remains one with the Father whom He reveals p88 western conception of grace implies the idea of causality.. for eastern theology there is a natural procession, the energies, shining forth eternally from the divine essence p110 man had only to give himself to Him in a complete abandonment of love, and thus return to Him the whole created universe.. deification of man.. not fulfilled by Adam, it is in the work of Christ, the second Adam p124 Man, according to St. Basil, is a creature who has received a commandment to become God p125 according to St Maximus, this freedom of choice is already a sign of imperfection.. perfect nature has no need of choice, for it knows naturally what is good pp140-41 immaculate conception is foreign.. [Orthodoxy].. does not wish to separate the Holy Virgin from the descendants of Adam upon whom the fault of the first parents weighs.. not holy in virtue of a privelege.. but because she has been kept from the taint of sin though without any impairment of her liberty p153 Christ assumed our nature.. responsibility for our error, while remaining a stranger to sin, in order to resolve the tragedy of human liberty, and in order to bridge the gulf p160 divine Persons do not themselves assert themselves, but one bears witness to another.. Damascene said that 'the Son is the image of the Father, and the Spirit the image of the Son' It follows that the third Hypostasis of the Trinity is the only one not having His image in another Person p176 not here concerned with individuals and with collectivity but with human persons who can only attain to perfection within the unity of nature.. cannot be translated by the abstract term of universality. For the highly concrete sense of the word 'catholicity' comprehends not only unity but also multiplicity p180 'a state of grace' has no absolute or static sense. It is a dynamic and shifting reality which varies according to the fluctuations of the infirmities of the human will p191 first presence is based on a predetermination, while the second is founded upon an election. Such are the manifestations of grace in relics, in places sanctified by appearances of the Virgin or by the prayer of saints.. finally, in the saints, in those human persons who have made the presence their own. pp 194-95 'is the boundary of created and uncreated nature' She has crossed the frontier which separates us from the age to come. This is why, freed from the limitations of time, Mary can be the cause of that which is before her; can preside over that which comes after her.. through her that men and angels receive grace.. who is herself the first-fruits of the glorified Church. Thus having attained to the limits of becoming, she necessarily watches over the destinies of the Church and of the universe, still unfolding in time p198 synergy of two wills, divine and human.. expresses the mystery of the coincidence of grace and human freedom in good works, without recourse to positive and rational terms p202 evangelical precept to watch, not to allow oneself to be weighed down with sleep, is a constant theme of Eastern asceticism pp202-03 theory which is not applied in practice, differs in no way from.. fantasy without any real substance.. action, if it is not inspired by contemplation, is as sterile and rigid as a statue p205 the more perfect one becomes, the more one is aware of one's own imperfection p214 'who desired the salvation of his brethren so fervently that he often besought God with burning tears.. that either his brethren might be save with him, or that he might be condemned with them..'.. Love of God is necessarily bound up with love of one's fellow-man p234 The love of God will be an intolerable torment for those who have not acquired it within themselves #@# Basil, On the Human Condition, SVS 2005 (6meron) pp20-21 [On the Holy SPirit ch9] The Spirit's closeness to the soul.. occurs though separation from the passions, which arise in the soul following friendship toward the flesh and alienate it from closenes sto God.. blessed vision of the Image you will see the ineffable beauty of the Archetype.. And jsut as limpid and transparent bodies, when the sun's ray falls upon them, themselves become radiant and shine with another ray from themselves, so the Spirit-bearing souls illumined by the Spirit themselves become spiritual and send forth grace to others. From this comes foreknowledge of future events, understanding of mysteries, comprehension of hidden things, distribution of gifts, heavenly citizenship, dancing with angels, joy without end, abiding in God, likeness to God, and the summit of desires, becoming god p44 [Origin of Human COndition 1] 17 "Become perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect" [Mt 5.48].. If you become a hater of evil, free of rancor, not remembering yesterday's enmity; if you become bother-loving and compassionate, you are like God. If you forgive your enemy from your heart, you are like God. If as God is toward you, the sinner, you become the same toward the brother who has wronged you, by your good will from your heart toward your neighbor, you are like God pp46-47 19 "And let them rule the fish." It was given to you to rule the irrational fish, thus you becoame rule of irrational passion. "And let them rule the wild beasts." You rule every wild beast. So, you say, what beasts do I have in myself? Indeed you have thousands, and a great crowd of beasts in yourself.. It transferred him to the nature of those without reason, because of the passion with which he associated himself.. Rule the thoughts in yourself, that you may become ruler of all beings. THus the rule we have been given over the animals train us to rule the things belonging to ourselves. For it is misplaced to be governed at home and govern nations, to be ruled within by a prostitute and be mayor of the city by public consent. It is necessary that household affairs be managed well and that good order within be arranged, and thus to receive authority over others. Since the word of Scripture will be turned back at you by those you rule if your household affairs are disorderly and disorganized, namedl "Physician, heal yourself" [Lk 4.23]. let us heal ourselves first. p88 [Homily ag Anger 5] Strip away from yourself these two attitudes: neither consider yourself worthy of great things, nor regard another human being as greatly inferior to you in worth. For then our temper will never rise up against the dishonors that are brought upon us p96 [Homily on "Be Attentive to Yourself" Deut 15.9] 3 Be attentive, then to yourself, that is, neither to what is yours nor to what is around you, but be attentive only to yourself. For we ourselves are one thing, and what is ours is another, and the things around us are another. Thus we are the soul and the mind, through which we have come into being according to the image of the Creator, but the body is ours and the sense perceptions through it, while around us our possessions, skills, and other equipment of life. What then does the Word say? Do not be attentive to the flesh, nor pursue its good in every manner, health and beauty and enjoyment of pleasures and long life, nor are of service to you in this temporary life, do not regard them as great p111 [Long Rules, Selections, Question 1] Since the Lord has given us the authorization to ask [v Chrysostom Hom Tim 1] qquestions.. [Mt 22.36-39] THerefore the Lord himself provided the ranking of his own commandments, establishing the first and greatest the commandment about love for God; and second in rank and like the first, or rather as a fulfillment of the previous one and dependent on it, the commandment about love for neighbor [6meron 1.17, ari pol 2.5 rhet 1&2 nic 3&4 magn 2] #@# Florovsky EaFath4c (v7 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsansalt FL9490 1987 ISBN 3-905238-07-1 (Orig Paris 1928-31 lect) [Florovsky taught at svots.edu, hchc.edu and harvard.edu] p17 Origenism was not only rejected but overcome, and this is the positive contribution which the Arian controversy made to theology p18 In his theology, Arius is a strict monotheist, almost a Judaizer, and for him a Trinity cannot be a single God p22 If Philostorgius is to be believed, Alexander and Ossius decided to concentrate on the word omoousios while still travelling to Nicea p24 In Platonism and Neoplatonism "essence" meant that which is general or common. For the Stoics also the term "substance" (substantia) designated a common, unqualified substratum, or matter in general, in opposition to the forms which distinguish it. For Aristotle and the Aristotelians, on the other hand, ousia meant primary individual and indivisible existence p25 for Aristotle ka8' upostasiv [kath' ypostasin] meant the reality and actuality of a thing, as opposed to its outward appearance. In the Septuagint hypostasis was used in various meanings and designated, among other things, "foundation" p27 "Eusebians," as they were called by Athanasius, who remained firm supporters of Origen and the dogma of subordinationism.. anti-Nicene fations feared Sabelianism to such an extent that they became careless with regard to Arianism p32 In the words of St Gregory the Theologian, "because of the poverty of their language and its lack of designations, the Westerners cannot distinguish between essence and hypostasis".. classical world did not know the mystery of personal being and in the classical languages there was no word which exactly designated individual personality [St Athanasius of Alexandria] p44 creation has both "nature" and "grace," Athanasius' system is built on the distinction and opposition of these two elements. He developed his teaching about the Word as sovereign and creative Wisdom before the Arian controversy p45 Man turned away from the contemplation of God, ceased his intellectual striving toward Him, and became shut up in himself, giving himself over to "self-consideration" p47 The Lord revealed His love for humanity in two ways, by destroying death and renewing nature, and by "revealing Himself in His works" to show that He is the Word of the Father, the Leader and Emperor of the universe. By his visible appearance the Lord showed His invisble Father to mankind, which had abandoned intellectual contemplation p50 accomplishments testify to the victory of Christ over death, and every day the host of martyrs laughs at death and rejoices in Christ p55 "If God had chosen not to create the world, nevertheless the Word was with God the Father" ... "Just as the Father has no cause for His being, it is also not necessary to try to find the reason for His radiance" p57 The Holy Spirit comes from and "proceeds from" the Father, to ekporeuma tou patros. He is the Father's Spirit. Athanasius does not explain the meaning of "procession," claiming that it is beyond the bounds of human understanding. However, he clearly distinguishes this mode of being from "generation" by stressing the complete uniqueness of generation [gevvnsis] [St Cyril of Jerusalem] p60 In ancient times catechumens were already considered members of the Church. Eusebius of Caesarea distinguished "three orders" within the Church, and catechumens were among them. Great circumspection was used in the admission of catechumens. Candidates needed to have the permission of the bishop and were required to undergo a period of testing, during which they were sponsored by baptized believers. Catechumens received the laying on of hands [Jewish semicha] and were signed with the cross, and prayers were read over them. In the West they were also anointed and were allowed to taste consecrated salt [for salt, cf Nums 18:19 Lev 2:13] p61 After a lengthy period of preparatory instruction, a candidate for baptism made his decision known and his name was entered in the Church records. In the East, he was then called "enlightened," or "signed with the cross," and in Jerusalem he was immediately considered a "baptized believer." In the West he was called a "petitioner" or a "chosen one".. candidate had to practice fasting and continence, and express penitence in words and deeds. For him this was a time of exomologesis, of public confession. Invocation and exorcisms were performed over him.. face was covered so that "his mind would be free, and so that his eyes in their wandering would not cause him to stray" [St Basil the Great, 1/3 Great Hierarchs] p72 Basil the Great was born into a Cappadocian family which was wealthy and distinguished.. influence of his grandmother, Macrina the elder, who was a disciple of Gregory Thaumaturgus. Basil was educated first in Caesaria and later in Constantinople and Athens, where he met Gregory the Theologian.. enormous erudition.. studied philosophy, dialectics and medicine. Basil returned to his native land in 354 and began to teach rhetoric, but he soon renounced his secular activities in favor of a life of asceticism.. joined by his friend Gregory, with whom he had earlier shared the ideal of ascetic renunciation, and together they worked on the compilation of a cenobitic rule.. compiled the Philocalia p74 during a terrible famine, Basil had sold the property he had inherited and given all of his money to help the hungry.. Gregory continues "Basil for a long time hesitated to use the proper expression, asking both the Spirit and the true supporters of the Spirit not to take offense at his circumspection".. result of this policy Basil was the only orthodox bishop in the East who managed to keep his see during the reign of Valens p76 Gospel does not separate love for God from love for one's neighbor. Therefore, for Basil, hermitic seclusion, inspired by the desire to find personal salvation in isolation, is insufficient. It is even opposed to the law of love which, according to the Gospel, "seeks nothing for itself." Furthermore, the spiritual gifts of the anchorite are of no benefit to his brothers. Finally, isolation frequently leads to arrogance. For all these reasons Basil summons ascetics to communal life and stresses the importance of love p80 Basil asserts that time was created by God as an environment for the material world.. God's creation of the world by His will did not take place in time.. angels are created outside of time and without time p84 "anger, desire, timidity and envy all confuse the soul's intuition. In the same way that a dull eye does not perceive visible objects, it is also impossible to attain a knowledge of truth with a troubled heart. Therefore, we should withdraw from worldly affairs and not introduce superfluous thoughts into our souls".. "If the soul has become weak through voluptuousness, irritability will temper it as iron is tempered by immersion in water, and will make a soft and feeble soul steadfast and firm" p86 "We observe as much as we can, but there is much that remains unperceived by us. However, we do not say that the sky is invisible simply because there is a part of it we do not see. On the contrary, it is just this limited perception we have of it that makes it visible and knowable to us. The same should be said of God" p89 By means of concepts we can break up and distinguish the information we receive through experience, but concepts can never express experience completely or exactly. Therefore they can never replace it. [cf Wittgenstein!] p92 Finally, Basil takes the basic outline of his trinitarian theology from the metaphysics of Aristotle. He was predisposed to this by the general tendency of Easter theologians to base their doctrive of the Divine Trinity [cf Buddhist-Hindu Trikaya] on the concept of triunity, or "particular," "individual," and "concrete" features p93 Aristotle is able to describe being through its properties or concrete forms, because the ultimate foundations of being are unknown. For Aristotle, this "unknowableness" is determined by the formless and unqualified substratum which is beneath all matter. For Basil, however, the inexhaustability and completeness of "esence" place it above qualification. This is connected with ambiguity of the concept dunamis [dynamis], which can mean wither undeveloped potential or power and strength [St Gregory the Theologian of Nazianzus, 1/3 Great Hierarchs] p109 "We derive something useful for our orthodoxy even from the worldly science.. Everyone who has a mind will recognize that learning is our highest good.. also worldly learning, which many Christians incorrectly abhor.. those who hold such an opinion are stupid and ignorant. They want everyone to be just like themselves, so that the general failing will hide their own imperfections, and their ignorance will not be exposed." These words were spoken by Gregory at Basil's funeral p111 at the funeral of his father he complained in Basil's presence that "in making me a priest you handed me over tot he turbulent and perfidious marketplace of souls, to suffer the misfortunes of life.. This is the outcome of Athens, our study together, our life under one roof, our companionship at one table, a single mind between the two of us, the marvels of Greece, and our mutual vow to set aside the world. Everything has shattered! Everything is cast to the ground! Let the law of friendship vanish from the world" p117 Gregory states that intellect "or any other perfect essence is comprehensible only by intellectual effort." The intellectual powers, the angels, are created in the image of God.. world of angels is the first creation to come into being p119 Gregory supports the bold formulation of Basil: man is a creature but has been commanded to become a god. The path of "deification" is a path of purification and the elevation of the intellect, ka8arsis [catharsis]. This is achieved through renouncing the material world of the sences, because the sences darken the mind. It is also necessay to concentrate on the self, to fight against the passions, and to attain a state of impassivity [meek=praos=unagitable] p120 Gregory often approaches Plato by calling the body a prison.. sees nothing surprising or misleading in the fact that Hellenic philosphers were able to develop the technique of ascetic discipline or that they were aware of the natural processes of thought and he natural laws of the soul p121 "Then in a way which is incomprehensible to us and known only to God, who joined them together and then separated them, the soul will take the flesh with its to receive its inheritence of coming glory" [compare to Hindu-Buddjist Sunya or sposed incomprehensible void of perfection] p133 He usually defines the properties of the hypostases as ungeneratedness, generation, and procession, agevvnsia, gevvnsis, ekporeusis [agenesis, genesis, ekporevsis] p134 "In whose name are you baptized? In the name of the Father? Good! However, the Jews also do this. [Jewish Mikva or ritual bath at conversion and before passover & al] In the name of the Son? Good! This is no longer according to Jewish tradition, but it is not yet complete. In the name of the Holy Spirit? Wonderful! This is perfectly complete. But are you baptized simply in their individual names, or in their common name? Yes, in their common name. And what is this name? There is no doubt that this name is God. Believe in this name and you will flourish and reign" p135 we must "penetrate the surface to know what is contained within it." Gregory explains that Scripture should not be understood only literally. "Some things which are contained in Scripture do not exist, and other things exist but are not found in Scripture. Some things do not exist and Scripture says nothing about them, but other things exist and are also described in Scripture" p143 "why was the blood of his Only-Begotten Son pleasing to the Father, who would not accept even Isaac.. not because He asks for it or demands it, but because man must be sanctified by the humanity of God, and so that He might deliver Himself" [St Gregory of Nyssa, younger brother of Basil] [Nyssa in Punjab?] p156 appearance of God begins with light, and Moses had once seen God in His radiance in the Burning Bush. Now, having become closer to perfection, he saw God in a cloud and, sheltered by a cloud, he participated in eternal life.. Our true knowledge is that we do not and cannot know because that which we seek is beyond our cognition. By its very nature the Divinity is higher than knowledge and comprehension. The first principle of theology must be that God is inaccessible. That which can be contemplated cannot be conceptually expressed.. Moses was led into the sanctuary not made by man and this is the ultimate extent of contemplation. He later reconstructed a material image of this divine temple at the command of God [Jewish bima = Holy Table or Trapeza; Judgement Seat in Greek = vima ] p158 Everything which can be truly conceived of God must be boundless, and this is why our longing is also unending p166 "We know by means of our senses only as much of their elements of the world as is useful for us. [heuristics!] We do not know what their essence is and this ignorance brings us no harm" p168 For Gregory Scripture is a symbol of spiritual truth and therefore the literal Hebraic interpretation of the bible is inadequate [nb literalist Sadducees & Antiochenes vs interpretive & allegorical Pharisses & Alexandrians].. "We say that all Scripture has been inspired by God because it is the teaching of Divine inspiration. When you remove the word, which is its corporeal cover, what remains for you is the Lord, Life and the Spirit" p170 "The Jewish doctrine is destroyed by acceptance of the Word and belief in the Spirit, and the polytheistic error of the Greeks is done away with by the truth of the unity of the Divine nature, which invalidates their idea of plurality. After these corrections are made in the false premises of both thses systems, let the Jewish conception of the unity of nature remain, and also the Greek distinction as to persons. The names of the Trinity are a remedy for those who are in error as to the One, as the doctrine of unity os for those who believe in many gods" p176 Aristotle considers that this lack of quality is an imperfection, but the Cappadocians apply this principle to the Divinity and conceive of it as ultimate completeness, a state superior to qualification p177 additional properties which distinguish men are accidental, sumbebnkotes [symvevicotes], and make no difference in the identity of their essence p179 Gergory's conception God, in spite of His presence in the world, maintains both His transcendance and His inaccessibility [Jewish Tsimtsum].. Gregory considers that the Biblical narration of creation is the record of Moses' contemplation on Mount Sinai and not the rational conjecture of some human mind. We must discern and correctly understand the true meaning of this narrative and together with Moses we must enter the mysterious cloud p185 Free will is a necessary condition of virtue because "virtue must be freely chosen and voluntary. Anything that is compulsory or forced cannot be virtue." Without free will there can be no intellect. "if intellectual natures lost their free will, they would also lose their ability to reason," that is, the ability to make distinctions and judgements p189 Gregory does not share Origen's distruct of physical matter. Everything created by God is, in the words of the Bible, "very good." Therefore, "we should discern good in every thing" [cf Maimon MT Deot 3:1]... "All of man's members have been designed for one goal: that mankind may continue to have life." Even man's animal and passionate mode of increase is not to be despised because it "ensures the succession of mankind." It is the way that "nature fights with death" p192 source of evil is the corruption of the will p202 The goal of ascetic discipline is not the mortification of the body but the mortification of the passions and sin, the subordination of the body to the law of reason, and the reconciliation of the body and soul. "Man must pacify the conflicting forces of nature within himself" p203 By charity we overcome pride and isolation. All men are created in the image of God, all men bear the image of our Savior, and all men anjoy God's love. Love for our neighbor is inseperable from love for God, and one is not possible without the other. Love is an internal connection and a growing together with the beloved object [St John Chrysostom, Antiochene, one of Three Great Hierarchs] p247 "It has been specifically forbidden for Christians to correct those who have fallen into sin by force.. not fighting to bring death to the living but to bring the dead back to life, and in our struggle we must be meek and humble.. persecute not by deeds, but by words, and I want to cast out not heretics but heresy" p248 His activity was aimed not at overcoming unorthodox opinions, but at making people who professed themselves to be Christians understand that the truths of faith are the truths and commandments of life, and that these must be put into actual practice by the individual.. Chrysostom demanded that men live according to their beliefs p249 "Wealth is harmful for you not because it arms thieves against you, nor because it completely darkens your mind but because it makes you caotives of soulless possessions and distracts you from the service of God" p251 poverty is voluntarily chosen for the sake of God and accepted with joy, it can be a path to virtue.. freer than a wealthy man and has fewer attachments and worries.. poverty could be a heavy burden.. source of envy, spite, and despair p258 Bolotov has aptly remarked that "the Alexandrian school was in danger of creating its own Scripture, but the Antiochene school, in remaining very close to the letter.." [This is the core of Chrysostom's anti-Judaiser admonitions] p261 Neither Chrysostom nor Theodore of Mopsuesta knew Hebrew.. For Chrysostom, as for Origen, the Bible is self-sufficient [St Ephraem the Syrian] p271 Syriac language [Aramaic?] of Ephraem's time did not yet posses a theological terminology.. "I openly admit the insignificance of my being and I do not want to try to know my Creator because the inaccessible One is awesome by His very nature" [apopathic] #@# Florovsky AspChHist (v4 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsanstalt FL9490 1987 ISBN 3-905238-04-7 ["Ethos" EcuRvu v12 #2] p16 only by being "Patristic" is the Church continuously "Apostolic" p25 In Orthodox theology and devotion alike, Christ is never separated from His Mother, the Theotokos and His "friends," [dragomans, said one respectful Turk] the saints. The Redeemer and the redeemed belong together inseparably. In the daring phrase of St John Chrysostom, inspired by Ephes. 1. 23, Christ will be complete only when His Body has been completed ["Athanasius" StdPatr v6 band81] p41 By using Greek categories Christian writers were forcing upon themselves, without knowing it, a world which was radically different from that in which they dwelt by faith. Thus they were often caught between the vision of their faith and the inadequacy of the language they were using. This predicament must be taken quite seriously p46 Origen strongly defended the eternity of the Divine Generation [Florovsky's term for genesis] and, at this point, was definitely anti-Arian. If we can trust St Athanasius, Origen explicitely denounced those who dared to suggest that "there was when the Son was not" [cit decretis 27] p56 "Beginning" belongs to the very "nature" of temporal things.. For that reason creatures cannot "co-exist" with the Eternal God. There are two incompatible modes of existence. Creatures have their own mode of subsistence: they are outside God ["Eschatology",StdPtr v2 1956] p59 The inner life of God is in no way conditioned by His revelatory self-disclosure in the world, including the design of Creation itself. The world is, as it were, a paradoxical "surplus" in the order of existence [Jewish Tsimtsum] p72 Origen was dealing with a real problem. His "aberrations" were in fact the birth-pangs of the Christian mind p73 The unity of mankind can only be achieved if the dead arise p76 real failure of Aristotle was not in his "naturalism," but in that he could not admit any permanence of the individuals p77 For Plato and Platonists death was just a welcome release out of the bodily bondage, " a flight to the fatherland" ["Anthropomorphites", Wolfson Jubilee, 1956] p105 basic principles of the anchorites was: qeuge tous av8rwpous kai sw5n [fevge tous anthropous kai soze] (Apophthegmata, Arsenus I, Cotelerius, Ecclesia Graecae Monumenta, I, p. 353). Retirement and renunciation was usually justified by Biblical examples: the images of Elijah and other prophets, of St John the Baptist [cf Christ in "Wilderness"] p125 Alexandrian Fathers always tended to restrict to kat' eikova [in His image] to the "interior man," to the spiritual aspect of his existence. This was, undoubtedly, an inheritance from Origen ["Missions", ChrEast v14 #1 1933] p142 many of the tongues are still undeveloped and insufficiently flexible and rich in their vocabulary to be used in mystical and sacred quotations. The missionaries often have not only to invent an alphabet but, as it were, to invent and work out the tongue itself p143 Sometimes the mission inevitably enters into controversy with the State; for it may happen tha the interest of the State demands delay in the Christianizing movement among younger nations; or sometimes, on the contrary, baptism acquires for the empire the means of forcing them into a central civilized political union p153 literary language of the Tatars was laden with Arabic and Persian words and had a general flavor of Islam, and by the use of colloquial speech it was [im?] possible to escape that hidden Moslem taint.. Ilminsky [ca 1850s] wanted. He was aiming at the formation of a specifically Christian Tatar language in opposition to an Islamic one.. language itslf was not to him something already developed and stationary, it was a living spiritual element which it was possible to transmute and transfigure [West Infl, Congr Orth Theol Athens 1936] p159 But one can hardly assume that this Dominican monk [Benjamin, mid1500s] from Croatia came to Novgorod just by accident. Apparently he had brought with him some completed Biblical texts. Indeed the influence of the Vulgate is strongly felt in the Biblical COdex of Gennadii, for the Vulgate and not Greek manuscript served as a model for the text p161 Kremlin Cathedral were built or rebuilt by Italian craftsmen.. Maxim the Greek, summoned to Moscow from the monastery of Vatopaedi on Mt Athos to aid.. "He speaks Latin and we translate it into Russian for the scribes" - the translator was Dmitrii Greasimov, a former student and assistant of Benjamin p162 Orthodox reply to Skarga's book about the [Unia] Council of Brest was actually written by a Calvinist - the well-known "Apokrisis" was published in 1587 under the name of Christopher Philaletes. There is good reason to presume that the pseudonym actually belonged to the well-known diplomat of that time, Martin Bronevskii, the secretary to King Stephen Batorii, who was deeply involved in the confederation of the Orthodox and the Evangelicals p163 Thus there was some truth to the malicious, ironic words of the Uniate Metropolitan Hypatius Pociei, when he wrote to Patriarch Meletius Pigas that Calvin has replaced Athanasius in Alexandria, Luther rules in Constantinople, and Zwingli in Jerusalem. It is sufficient to recall the "Confession" of Cyril Lukaris, the authenticity of which can no longer be doubted. This unexpected presentation of Calvinism by the Orthodox Patriarch can be partly explained as a result of his studies in Geneva p164 Although Mogila had certainly fought for the legal independence of the Kievan Church and had supported the resistance of the Orhtodox Church against the "Unia" [duplicitous papal reunification during 1230-1667 Polish occupation of Ukraine], there was however on many points no doctrinal difference between him and Rome p165 Stefan Iavorskii, who later, under the reign of Peter the Great [who took back Ukraine], went north. His Rock of the Faith" ("Kamen' Very") was actually only a "summary", a shortened "compilation" of various lLatin works, mainly of Bellarmine's Disputationes_de controversis christianae_fidei p169 In his well-known book Stefan_Iavorskii and Theophan_Prokopovich, Iurii Samarin wanted to present the clash of Romish and Reformation trends as a moment of alleged inner "dialectic of Russian theological thought" p181 only through a spiritual return to patristic sources.. return to the Fathers does not mean to retreat from the present or from history.. independence from the West must not degenerate into an alienation.. must encounter the West creatively ans spiritually. The dependence and imitation of the past cannot be considered an encounter.. Orthodox Theology's path of overcoming the Western "scandal" does not lie in rejecting or even overthrowing Western results. The path, rather, lies in overcoming and surmounting them in a new creative activity [Ways of Ru Theol, Dieu Vivant, 13, 1949] [It was the Petri-Papo-Burgundian influence which emulated the French Jacobins via bolshevism which Rancour-laFerriere sees as "masochistic"] p188 Faith has been preserved in the lower classes most of the time in a superstitious and "popular" context. Orthodoxy was reduced to being the confession of "simple folks,".. Slavophiles carried their share of responsibility. According to them [borrowing from German ROmaticism], the life of the people itself was a kind of natural catholicity. The commune, the "mir," was an embryo of the churh p189 "In its time, the Church was founded upon the better people of the land, not upon the obscure masses of the countryside, which retains to this day so many uncertain beliefs, pagan survivals, and among which the scism had soon grown deep roots" (S. Trubetskoy) p190 one hand, a craving for knowledge, an intellectual restlessness, an Aristotelian spriti of inquiry. On the other hand a dru and cold passion for simplification. Two wills oppose each other; more exactly the will is split assunder in twain [bipolar?] p195 It must pass through the austere schooling of Chrsitian Hellenism. Hellenism, so to speak, assumed a perpetual character in the Church; it has incorporated itself in the very fabric of the Church as the eternal category of Christian existence. Of course what is meant here is not the ethnical Hellenism of modern Hellas [Helladism] or of the Levant, nor Greek phyletism [phylum=race, phyletism=racism] , which is obsolete and without justification. We are dealing with Christian antiquity, with the Hellenism of dogma, of the liturgy, of the icon. In the liturgy, the Hellenic style of the "piety of the mysteries" enter into the rhythm of the liturgical mystagogy without passing through some sort of mystical "re-hellenization." Could anyone who is in the Church be foolish enough to deliberately "de-hellenize" the service and transpose them into a more "modern" style?. Moreover, Hellenism is more than a passing stage - in the Church. Whenever a theologian begins to think that the "Greek categories" are outmoded, this simply means that he has stepped outside of the rhythm of communion. Theology cannot possibly be catholic except within Hellenism. Now, Hellenism is ambiguous. An anti-Christian element was predominant in the ancient mind, Till now, there are many who take refuge themselves in [profane] Hellenism for the express purpose to rise and fight against Christianity (simply think of Nietzche!) But Hellenism was integrated into the Church; such is the historic meaning of Patristic theology p197 All those tentative transpositions or translations have never been anythin else but betrayals, that is to say, new interpretations in terms thoroughly inappropriate. Their terms always suffered from an incurable particularism. THay satisfied less their needs of contemporaries than the fads of the day. Turning away from Christian Hellenism is by no means moving ahead, but backwards, toward the dead ends and the perplexiies of the other [profane, even pre-Socratic & sophist] Hellenism, the one that had not been transfigured, and from which there was no escape but through Patristic integration. German idealism itself was nothing else but a backsliding into pre-Christian idealism p198 Whatever was Greek was suspected of intellectualism and consequently pronounced superfluous and alien to the exigencies of the Russian heart.. Tareiev declaimed with pathos against Greek oppression, against the Byzantine yoke: "Greek gnosticism had fettered religious thought, checked our theological creativity; it hindered the growth of our philosophy of the heart, it caused its root to dry up, it burned its shoots" p199 We cannot help wondering how a man can so naively withdraw himself from history and from the Christian heritage, with the candor and indifference of those who have forgotten their origins. Russian theology did not suffer from Greek oppression. It suffered, on the contrary, for its imprudence and lightheartedness in breaking up the continuity of the Hellenic and Byzantine traditions.. Renouncing Greek patrimony is actually tantamount to ecclesiatical suicide p202 Orthodox theology is called upon to demonstrate that the ecumenical problem cannot possibly be solved unless the Church reaches its fulfilment in the fullness of the catholic tradition, intact and immaculate, yet renewed and always growing #@# Jesus in History Kee HBJ 1977 p26 When Pharisaic Judaism became dominant following the disastrous revolts of AD 66-70 and 130-135, Jewish expectations of Messiah and the Kingdom of God were recrast, and the apocalypses were excluded from the Jewish canon, except for Daniel. Originally working independently of each other, Johannes Weis (1827-1918) and Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965) reached the conclusion that apocalypticism was the primary source for understanding the ministry and teaching of Jesus. p30 how deeply Jewish life and thought in Syria and Palestine was penetrated by Hellenization, even among those who were consciously resistant to the attempts of Heelnistic rulers to force their culture on the Jews [Hengel, Judaism & Hellenism, 1974] Remains of ancient synangogues with Greek inscriptions, representational art (theoretically forbidden by the Mosaic law against graven images), including portaits of the deity and the signs of the zodiac, show how thoroughly imbued with Hellenistic culture were the most pious Jews. The dostinction between "Palestinian" and "Hellenistic" is useless p47 Tacitus mentions that "Christus" was executed during the reign of Tiberius, probably around 29, having been sentenced by the procurator Pontius Pilate. Tacitus' account is the most precise and extensive information that the pagan authors provide about Jesus. Although his details match exactly what is known from Christian accounts, Tacitus, like Pliny and Seutonius, provides us with nothing that supplements what we know of Jesus from the gospels. The writings of the Roman historians are, however, important evidence for Jesus' existence as a historical person p53 Later on, Jewish polemic went to even greater lengths to discredit Jesus, but it never denied his existence or the basic facts of a ministry of teaching and healing and of his execution p123 in The Apostolic Preaching and Its Development in the New Testament [1951] C H Dodd lists certain propositions about Jesus that he claims all New Testament writers affirm desoite the difference between them.. Others think that the messages of Jesus in the synoptics does not go beyond the categories of Judaism, and they consider Paul the source of the essential Christian message p138 Plato's portrayal of Socrates is considered by some scholars. most notably Moses Hadas and Morton Smith [Heroes & Gods 1965], "the source for all subsequent aretologies, pagan and Christian" p171 Jewish Law, as analyzed by modern scholarship, falls into two categories: (1) apodictic laws, which ar ebased solely on God's decree ("Thou shalt. . . thou shalt not . . .") and (2) casuistic laws, which state the consequences of obeying or disobeying ("Honor they father . . .that thy days may be long . . ."). The apodictic form of ethics that Matthew attributes to Jesus, perticularly in the Sermon on the Mount, seems to be a conscious paralleling of the giving of the Law through moses on Mount Sinai p175 A still more remarkable expansion in Matthews's version of Peter's confession is the response of Jesus to Peter, in which Peter's blessedness is asserted to be that of one who has received a divine revalation (16:17), and he is promised both a foundational role in the establishment of Christ's church (a word used only by Matthew among the evangelists) and an authoritative function in its administration. Whatever the origins of this passage added by Matthew may ahve been, he used the pericope to assert unequivocally the messiahship of Jesus and his central place in God's plan as one assigned to establish the new poeple of God. The Greek word for church, ekklesia, has long been recognized as a translation of the Semitic word used in the Old Testament for the covenant community of Israel, qahal [Theol Dict Eerdmans 1965 pp487-536] p179 [Mt] the rigor of the moral requirement of the Law is not to be relaxed in the slightest degree.. God requires more that abstention from the act of killing; he rquires the positive act of reconciliation (5:21-26). Similarly, it is not enough for Matthew's Jesus that a man refrain from committing adultery. He is to exercise such self-control that he avoids even lustful looks.. standard for man's behavior is noting less than the perfect character of God himself (5:48).. Almsgiving and prayer are purely private matters, not occasions for religios ostentation (6:1-8) Likewise, fasting is to be practiced in secret p184 Matthew could have been written in any Greek-speaking Jewish center, although it likely came from a city with close ties to Palestine, since the rabbinic decisions at Jamnia seem to have exerted so great an influence p243 In the late biblical tradition, as well as in Jewish writings of the Hellenistic period, there is another figure in addition to the Son of Man who is depicted as preexistent: Wisdom (Prov. 8:22-23; Sir 24:9; Wisd of Sol 6:22). Wisdom not only preexists but has a role in the creation of the world (Prov 8:23-31), since she serves as God's companion in the bringing of the wrold into existence (Wisd of Sol 8:4-6,Sir 1). As R E Brown [Gosp John I-XII, pp cxxii-cxxv] has shown, Wisdom is portrayed in this literature as the effulgence of divine glory p244 However, instead of identifying Jesus with the feminine figure Wisdom (=Sophia, in Greek), John links Jesus with the masculine figure Logos (=Word) p253 [Wayne Meeks, J Bibl Lit 1972 91:52-65] characterized the gospel of John as "book for insiders" p259 Irenaeus noted that each of four different heretical groups of his day had selected one of the gospels to justify its position. THose who considered Christianity a special form of Judaism, and accordingly laid heavy stress on the Law, chose Matthew. The second-century church leader Marcion, who denied that the God and Father of Jesus was the creator and who sought to rid Christianity of all its Jewish elements, settled on the gospel of Luke, although he had to expurgate it in order to render it non-Jewish. Another ehretical group, called by their opponents the "Docetists" - the "Seemists," who denied the true humanity of Jesus Christ by claiming he only "seemed" to have a body - urged the gospel of mark as the basis for their distinction between the heavenly Christ and the earthly Jesus, who was no more than a phantasm. The gospel of John who was the favorite of Valentinus, one of the early Gnostics, whos eelaboration on and speculative additions to the Christian faith are documented in the Gospel of Truth #@# St Isaac Nineveh, Ascetic Life, St Vlad, ISBN 88141-077-2: p30 (1.25) virtue requires a heart emptied of earth and its affairs p31 (1.30) insatiable longing of the soul for the acquisition of virtue surpasses the desire of its partner, the body, for visible things p33 (2.6) [when depressed] bring to your mind the former times of diligence.. blaze of zeal p44 (3.5) G*d has not made his image subject to passion [praos=meek=passionless].. nature of the soul is sometimes a limpid receptacle of the blesed light, it will be found in this state when it comes again to its original created condition p58 (3.58) Before being tempted one prays to God as a stranger. But when one has entered tribulations.. considered God's housemate and friend.. contended for the sake of [God's] will against the army of his enemies p76 (4.77) Do not distinguish between rich and poor, and do not determine who is worthy and who is not.. p82 (5.13) One who doubts the Lord is persecuted by his own shadow.. (5.17) one whose offenses are small in his eyes will fall into even greater ones p91 (5.69) how would you have become aware of these things if you had not had adversities? p104 (6.8) limpidity of mercy is known from patience in bearing injury, and the perfection of humility when it rejoices in gratuitous slander St Gregory of Nyssa Soul&Ressurection SVS:NY:1993 ISBN:0-88141-120-5 p45 The likeliness of the intelectual is intelectual. The likeliness of the bodiless is bodiless, free from all weight and escaping all dimensional measurement like its archetype, but different from it according to the particular property of its nature. For it would not be an image if it were the same as its original in all respects. p56 From the animals.. is anger, from them is fear, from them all the other qualities which conflict in us expcept for the reasoning.. distinctive of our nature.. itself the imitation of divine character p67 holding on to its own cognitive power.. separate elements are combined again into the same body to reinstitute what dissolved.. properly be called 'resurrection' p85 The Gospel says that the restitution for the debt is not made by payment of money, but that the debtor is handed over 'to the torturers unitl,' it says, 'he repays all that he owes' [Mth 18:34].. when he has thus put away all that is alien.. taken off the shameful garment of his debts, he enters into freedom and confidence p100 So the remaining alternative is to suppose that soul and body have one and the same begining. Just as the earth receives from the farmer a slip cut off from its root, it produces a tree.. same way we say that what is separated from a human being for the propogation of a human being is itself also in someway a soul-endowed being from a soul-endowed being p118 In the same manner the human nature also, when it abandons to death all the properties which it acquires through the state of subjection to passion (I mean dishonor, corruption, weakness, difference of age), does not abandon itself. Instead, as if ripening into an ear, it changes into incorruptiblility, glory, honor, power, and every kind of perfection #@# Eastern Orthodox Church, Benz 1957/2009 Aldine Transaction Rowohlt p14 [Icons of Trinity] "And as the Old Testament tells us of Thine appearance in the form of the three angels to the glorious patriach Abraham, so in the New Testament the Father revealed himself in the voice, the Son in the flesh in the Jordan, but the Holy Spirit in the form of the dove. And the Son again, who rose to heaven in the flesh and sits by the right hand of God, sent the Comforter, the holy SPirit, to the apostles in the form of toungues of fire. ANd upon Tabor the Father revealed himself in the voice; the Holy SPirit in the cloud; and the Son, in the brightest of all light, to three disciples. So, for lasting remembrance, we profess Thee, sole God of our praise, we profess Thee not with our lips alone, butalso paint Thy form, not to deify it, but so that seeing it with the eyes of the body we may look with the eyes of the spirit upon Thee, our God, and by venerating it we may praise and lift Thee, our Creator, Redeemer and Uniter" p51 Redemption, therefore, is not primarily the restitution of a legal relationship that has been upset by sin. Rather, it is fulfillment, renewal, transfiguration, perfection, deification of man''s being.. idea of love rather than of justice dominates Eastern religiosity.. Awareness of the overflowing fullness of divine love drives away all thought of any schemes of reckoning and satisfaction p97 A great many specifically Oriental characteristics of asceticism, reminiscent of Hindu or Buddhist ascetic practices, have lingered on in Orthodox monasticism. The stylite saints of Syrian monasticism, for example, can be traced to such non-Christian traditions p140 [icon] abstract stylization according to intellectual and religious dictates, by abolishing realism and the illusion of space, an entirely new style was created.. the perspective was inverted, the focus of the lines not being in the eye of the observer, but at some transcendent point behind the picture - shifted as it were, to the divine eye. The spatial lines from the observer back to the transcendental center; from this inverted divine perspective p161 The Slavophiles assert that certain COmmunist social forms in Russia, especially collective farming, are related to the Orthodox ideal of sobornost.. easier to make the village responsible for forced labor for public purposes.. once the peasantry had been freed, the landowner could no longer be charged with the responsibility of raising taxes p191 France's participation in the Crimean War was expressly sanctioned by the Archbishop of Paris. In a pastoral letter he describe the war as a crusade against the "heresy of Photius.. Middle Ages the Roman Catholic Church had proclaimed the struggle against Byzantium to be one branch of the crisade against Islam p213 Under the dominion of Mongols, Arabs and TUrks the various Orthodox churches of RUssia and the Near and Middle East, have in fact crawled back into their liturgical shell and have essentially renounced outward activity #@# Desert Father, Cowan, Shambala 2004 p23 men like Anthony usurped the position of the oracles in late antiquity. Because they couldn't be appropriated by any one section of society, including the emperor or the Church, they were effectively able to act as mediators when required p30 Not only had he become the "lonely man" par excellence, but his decision to live in a tomb (as later in his cave in the desert) gacve reality to a long tradition of speculation on the lost simplicty of Adam p38 insights familiar to priests of the Serapeum or to Anthony.. Lucian of Samosata described a pagan Egyptian sage called Pancrates in the second century in his Philopseudes as "a great scholar, versed in all the Egyptioan doctrines, who had been initiated by Isis into the mysteries of magic." The cave became the home of introspection where a psycho-spiritual transformation was able to take place. The christian anchorite, in particular those who were Egyptian, would have naturally resorted to such time-honored techniques of ascetic behavior p44 Dionysius the Aeropagite.. notion of divine darkness, for example argues that knowledge of God can be attained only by going beyond every visible and intelligible object. It is through ignorance (agnosia) that we know the one who is above all that can be an object of knowledge p47 Anchoritism and monastic life were to become the major impetus in the spread of Christianity throughout Europe and the East. However much the Christian message might inspire men to adopt a new spiritual ethic at the end of the pagan era, it was the anchorite and the monk who became its shock troops. THey provided a model of absolutism that classical philosophers had been unable to emulate. The age demanded a more austere encounter with the world, and a new approach to mystical expression p63 Anthony had shown the world that he was already dead to it and that the state had no authority to determine what he might choose to believe p95 As Evagrius so eloquently stated: "The perfect man does not work at remaining continent, nor does a man with apatheia work at being patient. For patience is the virtue of a man who experiences untoward emotions, and continence is the virtue of a man who suffers disturbing impulses" [Praktikos, Prayer, 68] p124 Not since the pythagorean schools in Magna Graecia during the sixth century BC had any group of men attempted to modify thought in such a rigorous and uncompromising manner, at least not in the Mediterranean world. The pytahgoreans, however, had made their emphasis on ritual purification and the noneating of certain foods. In contrast, the early anchorites went further; they denied the importance of food altogether p140 Five SIgns through which an ascetic must pass on the road to the sphere of serenity. According to Abdisho', the first sign is determined by a renunciation of the world brought about by a love of solitude. The second sign is perceived when aman has enetered a state of complete humility whereby all sense of good and bad, just and unjust, is eliminated form the critical faculties. The third sign is determined when tears begin to flow spontaneously, like "fountains of water," so that the heart is kindled with the fire of the Spirit in a spirit of loving-kindness. THe fourth sign is the sign of remembrance, when the key to the inner door of the heart is opened, thus revealing the hidden Christ, whose vision is an ineffable light. THe fifth and final sign bestows on a man the illuminated vision of his own mind, which is able to see the firmament of the heart "like a sapphire sky" p145 revolution in human consciousness. THis was Christ's unique contribution, and one that inspired men to aspire to more than victory in battle or the achievement ofpolitical success. THe Christ of those early centuries afte rhis death introduced men to the idea that they, too, were capable of achieving godlike status. p145-6 What Abdisho' and Anthony were primarily interested in was Christ's luminous nature and his capacity to articulate humankind's spiritual potential in the face of pervasive materialism of his time.. decline of the gods.. deification of emperors.. contributed to the pulverization of social values in late antiquity.. classical ideal had simply run out of steam p155-6 [AustralianLazarus said] "Isaac [Nineveh] meant by purification.. cleanse the body of its attachment to the passions.. sould must now be released from hidden affections of the spirit.. wrongfulness, all sense of animosity.. Instead we must become absolutely open and uncritical toward our fellow humann beings. Isaac likens this condition to that of a child.. heavenly contemplation. The mind, divorced from the senses, is stimulated by certain spiritual powers emanating from the manifold worlds above us" p185 Only then could he govern the unruly nature of his heart and mind. I think he would have agreedwith Abu Ya'qub al-Zabuli when he said that realizing the state of apatheia was to obliterate the eseence of humanity within, together with all signs of whereness. Nonwhereness is a condition of the anchorite. He lives in a world not of things, or of place or social obligation, but of theophanic forms, the wholly other, that which is beyond the sphere of the usual #@# Columbia Hist World Harper 1972 ISBN 0-88029-004-8 [foreword by Univ Prez Wm McGill] [incl Barzun, Shenton, Fritz Stern, Henry Graff, Richard Hofstadter] p61 Akkadian, a Semitic dialect, was understood from Babylon to EGypt p69 brown water of the fflood leaves behind a deposit of silt rich in organic matters which renew the topsil.. backbreaking work of the fellah which sustained the agricultural civilization of Egypt through six millenia.. As soon as man's effort slackened, the population dwindled. It totalled 8 mllion under the Romans in the first century; it was only 2 million at the beginning of the nineteenth century under Turkish rule p75 only in Egypt, the living, the dead, and the gods were three species of the same substance.. same egalitarian idea later marked the Jewish, Christian and Muslim hopes of future life.. Greeks, death ended life, and immortality was a miraculous gift of the heavens to an exceptional man p98 Vedic man took a positive view of the world around him; he was confident of his ability to grapple with his environment. His religious "anxiety" was outer-directed: there is very little evidence of the inward ascetic withdrawal and transcendental mysticism of later Indian civilization p115 [China] Commerce was not yet looked down upon, and nobles themselves engaged in it without disgrace p127 power was shared by the emperor and the bureaucracy. Major policy decisions were discussed at the court, and the advice of high oficials, in unanimous, was considered binding p141 Jacob's children had to be driven by famine into Egypt so that the Israelites, arriving from Egypt "470 years" later, could be represented as his descendants. (Similarly, the children of Hercules had to be banished from the Peloponnese so that they dould lead the later Dorian invasion.) p150 colonies [and mountains?] were a frontier from which the Greeks derived an awareness of new possibilities, a willingness to experiment, and a "philosophic" detachment from established customs and ideas p151 revulsion of the temperate desert people from the drunken Palestinian fertility rites p172-3 austerity transformed art.. simplicity, already characteristic of Greel elegance, Athenian art added a delocacy of feeling, a lighter touch, and an interest in sentiment... bourgeois mentality, in the restraint of this naturalism by reverence and by the common-sence notion that art "should" represent beautiful things p178 "Hellenized barbarian" states is the culture of the ruling class was mostly Greek, but the population was mostly non-Greek - or Greek of a savage sort that the Greeks would scarcely recognize it. Besides Macedon and Epirus in northern Greece, the old Milesian colony of Panticapaeum in south Russia p180 Aristotle, the completely professional philosopher.. systematic.. organizing the many branches of knowledge for cooperation, as in a university or an academy p247 By the end of the sixth century the Gospels had been translated into Coptic, Nubian, Ethiopic, Syriac, Sogdian, Armenian, Georgian, Gothic, Thracian and Latin. In all of these languages except Sogdian, Latin and perhaps Thracian, the translation was the first written literature p249 Introspection, hitherto the luxury of a few philosophers, became now a major concern of millions of baptized Christiansq p264 Egypt and Syria the Christian population was strongly opposed to the centralizing and Hellenizing tendencies of the Byzantine.. not only all Christians and Jews in the empire, but also the Zoroastrians of Persia.. self-administered communities, lived under their own civil codes, and were goverened by their own religious leaders.. mass conversions to Islam would have meant abandoning the jizya, a considerable source of revenue.. wisely left civl control in the hands of their non-Muslim subjects - the Hellenized Christians and Persians experienced in local government [cit Andrae, Arberry, Gibb, Hitti, Bernard Lewis, Watt] p321 subdued the Tatars, Kereits, Oirats and Naimans, and became the master of the Mongolian-speaking people. His supremacy was confirmed in 1206, when the Mongolian diet recognized him as Chinggis Khan, which may mean Universal Ruler p387 military elite and soldierly were policed by the idea of just war.. monastic militia was quite as active. The clearing of forest and march by the Cistercians and other orders is well known. The military orders provided Europe's best soldiers and, until the rise of Lombardy's merchant-bankers in the thriteenth century, the Templars specialized in papal and state finance p402 Anti-Jewish outbreaks often accompanied the attempts around 1100 of urban merchantile and ministerial groups to break the power of their princes.. England's precocity in inventing anti-Jewish propaganda paralleled the rapid growth of the Crown, its initial incapacity to tax the aristocracy, and the consequent squeezing of its Jews.. England's Jews were expelled in 1295. Everywhere in the later Middle Ages, the Jews were reduced to marginal economic functions, pushed back towards Islam's frontiers p404 guild corporatism maximized profits and multiplied monopolistic restrictions.. Already dimly outlined in Italy before 1300, the whole panoply of state-regulated banking and monetary policy, bullion-measured trade balances, and state-chartered companies slowly spread to the rest of Europe.. Jews and Lombards resident in foreign lands who were privileged to lend money at usury p408 Templars were abolished in 1312, the first monastic order to succumb to lay attack p453 Pope Innocent III wrote with profound indignation: "How can the Church of the Greeks be expected to return to devotion of the Apostolic See when it has seen the Latins setting an example of evil and doing the devil's work so that already, and with good reason, the Greeks hate them worse than dogs" Ominously the Greek historian in exile, Nicetas Choniates, recorded the native point of view: "The accursed Latins... lust after our possessions and would like to destroy our race... between them and us there is a wide gulf of hatred... Even the Saracens are merciful and kind [in comparison with these creatures] who bear the cross of Christ on their shoulders" p455 The policy of the Lascarid emperors to return to earlier Macedonian traditions of social legislation, a guided economy, and centralization around a learned court produced at best a pale shadow of former slplendor p456-7 In 1342 the wealthy city of Thessalonike was seized by a popular party, which proclaimed a program of social wlefare and religious puritanism, massacred the upper classes, and established a commune which maintained itself until 1350, thus isolating the city from the rest of the empire... usurpation of John VI Cantacuzenus against the legitimate heir John V Paleologus found regional support which weakened still further the cohesion of the empire.. At various points of his career, John Cantacuzenus owed his survival to the support of the Serbian czar or the Ottoman sultan p459 first time mental stagnation and anti-intellectualism manifested themselves at Constantinople.. Aristotelian logic failed to win over most Greek scholars from their traditional attachment to Platonic idealism.. Hesychast doctrine with its total concentration on the mystical vision.. rejection of the nascent humanism of the West.. intellectuals departed, while religious leaders, rejecting the "heretical" emperor.. otherworldly monastic p460 [Moscow] "Because the Old Rome has collapsed on account of heresy... and because the Second Rome which is Constantinople is now the possession of the godless Turks, thy kingdom O pious Tsar, is the Third Rome. It surpasses in devotion every other, and all Christian kingdoms are now merged in thy realm. Thou art the only Christian sovereign in the world, the Master of all faithful Christians... All Christian empires are fallen in their stead stands alone the Empire of our ruler in accordance with the prophetical books. Two Romes have fallen, but the Third stands, and a Fourth there will not be" [cit Diehl, Hussey, Ostrogorsky, Runciman, Vasiliev, Vryonis] p465 it was not the outsiders who left their imprint on the new states, but the Slavic substratum... Bulgars of the ninth century still addressed their chieftains as "khan" and wore the trousers and turbans of Asiatic nomands, but soon thereafter the Christian Bulgar ruler forgot his Turkish ways and language to become a Slavic "czar".. Direct Slavic control of Greece had been broken by the crushing defeat inflicted on them at Patras in 805 by the emperor Nicephorus I p471 989 that Sviatoslav's bastard Son, Vladimir I the saint.. Kiev.. senior in an agglomeration of military and commercial city-states, most of the ruled by members of a single dynastiy claiming descent from Riurik. Of variable importance at different times, these included Chernigov and Pereiaslav near Kiev; Novgorod and Smolensk in the north; Polotsk and Halicz (Galicia) in the west; Tmutorakan far to the south; and Rostov the great, Riazan, Suzdal, and Vladimir in the East. Hence a centrifugal tendency was an intrinsic part of the early Russian political structure p488-9 The foundation of successful banking houses in Castile, France, Germany, and the Netherlands in the fifteenth century broke its monopoly of international banking. ITalian merchant-bankers adapted resiliently to changing economic circumstances.. Bankers rationalized the organization of their firms, generalized novel accounting techniques like double-entry [out here, in there] bookkeeping, and developed more sophisticated instruments of credit and exchange. The Medici Bank was smaller than the great Florentine banks of the early fourteenth century; but in the days of its greatness it was better managed and more efficient.. sixteenth century was an age of economic expansion all over Europe.. prototype of modern European civilization.. conscious manipulation and balancing of one power against another, so characteristic of the relations among European powers in the modern world.. earliest clear expression of bourgeois values.. time is money; and the notion, so difficult for the aristocrat to graps, that expenditures should not exceed one's income p520 Papal doctrine held tha such transfers of divine credit could benefit not only the living but the dead as well p546 Charles V, who ruled Spain from 1516 to 1556, was also the Holy Roman Emperor, sovereign duke over provinces in the Low Countries, Burgundy, Austria, Styria, and almost innumerable other, lesser territories in addition to being king of Bohemia and Hungary, and Duke of Milan, Naples and Sicily. As part of this great Hapsburg Empire p557 William of Orange.. cleverly staged a number of democratic coups in Brussuels, Ghent.. savior of oligarchy in Holland had become the hero of guild democracy in the south p604 conquest of Anatolia in the eleventh century had been largely the work of a warrior group known as gazis whose common tie was their devotion to jihad.. first of mixed origin, then increasingly Turkicized.. frontier society which spearheaded the Muslim advance.. militant Islamic faith differed from the learned and strictly orthodox beliefs of the Seljuk.. paradoxically both share the superstitions of the local non-Muslim population and rally the allegiance of other Muslim groups as the true sword-bearers of Islam against the Infidel p618 England, France, and Russia, who had jointly destroyed the Ottoman fleet at Navarino in 1826. Russia advanced in both Thrace and Transcaucasia. Fear of Russia's expansion in Central Asia, which threatened British interests in Iran and India, and of her control of the Dardanelles, briefly extorted in 1833 through the secret clauses of the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi, alarmed Western powers and led to the Crimean Was of 1853-1856, which gave a breathing spell, but no more, to the Ottoman government. In the famous phrase of Czar Nicholas I, "the Sick Man of Europe" p711 Locke, Voltaire, and their fellow Deists were sure that all religions rest on a common, identical moral sence, and that the differences among creeds are merely superstitious and irrelevant accretions - the inventions of crafty priests to secure themselves power and riches by deceiving people and keeping them ignorant [cf Schmemann HREO p98] p712 Jesuits were expelled from Portugal and its colonies in 1759. (Did the catastrophic Lisbon earthquake of 1755 discredit Providence? Many said so throughout Europe. Voltaire wrote a poem about it.) In France and Spain the Jesuits were suppressed in 1767. Aranda in Spain also persuaded Charles III to abolish the Inquisition. Frederick the Great in Prussia and Joseph II in Austria decreed religious toleration; in England and elsewhere trials for witchcraft decline or disappeared; and finally on 1773, the enlightened pope whome even Voltaire loved and praised, Benedict XIV, abolished the Jesuit order altogether p761 Both sides were war-weary by 1780, and looked hopefully to foreign mediation. Austria and Russia proposed to force a truce upon all parties and impose a settlement based on the military status quo. Had their diplomacy succeeded, Maine, New York City, and most of the Carolinas and Georgia would have remained part of the British Empire and a united nation might never have been achieved. However, the news of Yorktown put an end to these complicated backstairs intrigues and hardened the move in England for a quick peace p773 As Bonaparte bluntly put it, "On my return to Paris I found division among all authorities, and agreement upon only one point, namely, that the Constitution was half destroyed and was unable to save liberty" p782 Napoleonic Code.. main legal victories of the Revolution - equality of men before the law, the rights of citizens, the abolition of manorial privileges - were retained and embodied in a form that has been France's most important cultural export p818 In 1918 the empire was shorn of many of its Asian provinces and occupied by Greek, British, French, and other troops. The ensuring war of liberation revivified Turkish nationalism. It was led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, a general who had won fame and popularity by his brilliant dfense of Gallipoli in 1915 and his dogged resistance to the British advance in Syria in 1918. The ramshackle, multinational, archaic Turkish empire emerged as a compact, homogeneous republic p843 canals and railroads of the Mississippi Valley and the Great West were constructed by Irish and Chinese, the timber of the north exploited by Scandinavians, the subways of New York dug by Italians, the steel mills and meat-packing plants of the Middle West manned by immigrants from eastern Europe, the clothing industry of New York by Jews.. real wages in the United States rode every decade in the nineteenth century p845 American political philosophy as faith in anarchy plus a schoolmaster p853 Starting arounf 1830, hundred of southern Europeans (French, Spanish, Italian and Greek) settled in North Africa, from Egypt to Morocco. At their peak, in the 1930's, they numbered more than 2 million p960 As Darwin expelled man from his privileged place in nature, Freud expelled reason from its privileged place in human nature p975 In the Balkans Austria-Hungary could find an outlet for her commerce and capital.. Straits at Constantinople, commanding entry to the Black Sea, remained in control of a power that, if not friendly, was at least weak. But when she was seized with Pan-Slavic enthusaism, Russia could go further and assume her old role as patron of her fellow Slavs and of the Orthodox Church.. Rebellions in the Turkish provinces in 1875 provoked terrible massacres in Bulgaria. A European conference called in 1876.. by 1878, Russia demanded the creation of a "Big Bulgaria" p976 Pan-Slav implications of the Treaty of San Stefano; this provided an opportunity for Disraeli to reassert his pro-Turkish policy, now that Gladstone's anti-Turkish campaign had been momentarily neutralized by the Turk's heroic stand at Plevna. The main result of the ensuing Congress of Berlin was the partition of Big Bulgaria; one part, called Macedonia, was returned to Turkish misrule and more atrocitites in the nineties; the remainder was broken into Bulgaria proper and Eastern Rumelia, though the two were reunited without serious protest seven years later. The British initiaive, taken so dramatically at Berlin, was not maintained. In 1879, Gladstone's novel "Midlothian Campaign" - once more roused British voters against Disraeli's forward policy; but Gladstone's own governemnt after 1880 was so divided that no clear line could come from the Liberals, and thus the way was opened for Salisbury's greater realism after 1886 p977 Ad now, that Britain was firmly entrenched in Egypt, her superintendence of the Eastern Mediterranean could be conducted from there (and from Cyprus, which she occupied in 1877). The old need to prop up Turkey fell away, leaving Turkey open to German penetration p978 In 1912, when Turkey was further embroiled in a war with Italy over Italian designs on Lybia, the Balkan states of Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro united against Turkey, in the end limiting her to a tiny European foothold about COnstantinople. But the victorious allies fell out, and in 1913, follwoing a Bulgarian attack, Serbia and Greece were joined by Rumania to defeat Bulgaria and to make territorial gains for themselves p979 Bismark had often said that the Balkans were not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian grenadier; now his successors, mesmerized for years by the prospects of a Berlin-to-Baghdad railway.. Turkey, which was rapidly becoming a German protectorate..For their part, the Austrians continued their harassment of the Serbs. Not content with their Bosnian coup of 1908, in 1913, they conjured up an independent Albania to block Serbia's outlet to the Adriatic. The pretext they wanted for still further action arose on June 28, 1914, when the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated at Sarajevo by a member of a secret society of Serbian nationalists p992 Bolshevism, long nurtured in prewar thoughts and antagonisms, could never have triumphed without the war.. 1o million Europeans had died in battle p999 Although the Bolsehviks quickly won control of the most important cities, it took them three years of bitter civil war to subdue the broad reaches of Russia.. battles without prisoners, organized terror and unorganized marauding.. Entire towns were depopulated. Inevitably, widespread famine followed p1006 United States in 1919 turned in on itself. In the frenzy of Red Scare it sought ot exorcise all European ideals p1014 William Faulkner later wrote: "Our economy is not agricultural any longer. Our economy is the federal government. We no longer farm in Mississpi cotton fields. We farm now in Washington corridors and Congressional committee rooms" p1040 The British complained that each time the governement made a concession Gandhi would shift his ground, but Gandhi's actions were intelligible from his strategy of noncooperation and his metaphysics, which hed that any truth could not be embodied in any formula but needed continual restatement in action p1048 geographical inventions - Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia - were themselves multinational states, ridden with tension and under constant threat of disintegration, like the mepire from which they had sprung. A boudary line or a majority vote cannot disentangle mixed populations p1051 But German democracy, handicapped by the apolitical attitude that had almost always characterized German intellectuals and by a steady barrage of destructiv criticism from its enemies, was compromised for many more of its citizens by its origin in defeat, while in other countries, notably Poland ans Hungary, the immediate postwar instability led ultimately to the establishment of regimes that might be in form democratic but that were in essence highly authoritarian p1066 Taking a leaf from an earlier performance - the sneak attack on Russian Port Arthur in February, 1904 - on December 7, 1941, Japanese aircraft struck the naval base of Pearl Harbor p1069 ironic truth was that authentic Communist sentiments were much stronger in France and Italy than in eastern Europe p1081 The Europe of the Six is but a part of Europe, roughly coterminous with Charlemagne's empire p1156 Literacy cannot be spread indefinitely but turns back on itself; teachers cannot be mass-produced at will like cars; and worst of all, the beneficiaries of free schooling resist or scorn the benefit. Accordingly, the latest "solution" offered the once-hopeful world is: "de-schooling society." It sounds like a new-found freedom p1162 Rather, faith is on the list of shortages, like all other natural resources. But much more than they, faith is needed for action, innovation, risk-taking, heroism p1163 Artists, free thinkers, and free lovers who currently denounce the Western nations as police states would from their future labor camps long for the good old days p1164 But if taht is so, then science is not what iits founders expected, a source of knowledge; rather, it is an absorbing activity, whose results can never give its patron civilization any conception of the world, much less of that other fugitive, man #@# Walter Blair, Meine, Rabe, Jahn, Hist World Lit, UOK, Chicago, 1940 p15 Thousands of years old, the Rig-Veda, oldest of Indo-European literary monuments, carries us back from an age of machinery and scientific knowledge to a far-off age of childlike wonder and dawning faith... suggests the way an imaginative child - if he were a poet capapble of expressing himself in simple but beautiful words - might speak of his growing knowledge of the mysterious universe about him p19 According to the Buddhistic belief, th eobject of life is to secure deliverance from pain. Until the soul is delivered from this by purification, it will be born again and again. Since the source of all pain is desire, the avoidance of suffering comes from the discarding of desire, desire for the riches and fleeting pleasures of the world. The end of life, therefore, is Nirvana - oblivion p29 In the founding of all religions, personality plays a great part. Confucius was a beloved figure because of his humaneness as well as his wisdom; Moses was a mighty man, a leader with intense convictions. But many believe Christ, as the most important person that ever lived, was greater than either, "so unspeakably rich and yet so simple, so sublime and yet so homely, so divinely above us in being so divinely near." p31 followed by soldiers who had faith which caused them to have no fear of death in battle, he carried on a campaign which made possible the victory of his religion by means of the sword. Two years after the capture of Mecca (in 630), when Mohammed died, Islam - the religion of this fighting prophet - was supreme in Arabia.. His favorite young wife Ayesha summed up his enthusiasms when she said: "THe prophet loved three things, - women perfumes and food; he had his heart's desire of the first two, but not the last." Cruel, vain, so uninterested in the arts that he hated poets and consigned all painters to hell, he seemed to lack the sensitiveness many thinl important for a religious man. For recreation, he liked nothing better than to cobble shoes p36 Virgil, Dante, Milton, and other writers of the epic poem have never been quite able to achieve Homer's level in imparting universal significance to details and characters. Virgil, who took the story of the Ilian from the Trojan point of view, is partisan and partisan and particularized in meaning, in comparison. The Aeniad is marred by Virgil's over-anxiety to glorify Rome p38 The lofty and dignified style of Pindar's odes has been the model in form and spirit for such poets as Shelley, Wordsworth, Keats, and Tennyson p41 But the daring of Aescylus showed itself in this way, that whereas Homer was reverent in his treatment of the Olympian gods and Greek warriors, Aeschylus had the hardihood to put their speeches in th emouth sof the "ordinary" human beings of his own time, to make those events which seemed so far off, even as Homer wrote them, come to life agai. Aeschylus, now regarded as the father of the modern theater, combined in his verse the qualities of both of the drmatic epic and of the personal lyric p44 As stage manager Sophocles elaborated the costumes and masks.. Sophocles was the first to paint scenery and give color to the background p45 In contrast to the restrained style of Aeschylus and Sophocles, the style of Euripides was both romantic and realistic... He displaced austerity with pathos and sympathy.. In criticism of this, Sophocles said, "Aescylus gave us men and women of colossal stature. Euripides depicted humannature as it is.".. In reading the Greek tragedies, we find out that no hero is visited by undue punishment unless he has committed a sin of violence or hasty judgement p46 By means of his comedies, Aritophanes was also thought an effective literary critic. He never hesitated to gibe at anything he thought ridiculous, including some of the works of the three great tragedians.. Aristophanes wrote some very splendid poetry, but it is his comic poetry that has been quoted, especially the following ditty from the Frogs.. Brekekekex, ko-ax, ko-ax p56 As consul, he [Cicero] saved the Republic from the Cataline conspiracy by delivering four great speeches which to this day are considered models of rhetorical eloquence. Later, after the assassination of Caesar, his twelve Phillipic orations, full of indignation and invective, made him the idol of Rome. Knowing well the peculiar qualities of his countrymen, he knew how to twist his audience around his finger p57 Lucretius, as was common, went to Athens to study science and philosophy.. His poem, De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of THings) is quite derivative - an imitation of Empedocles which expresses Greek philosophical ideas, especially those of Epicurius.. It is interesting as scientific lore, since it attempts to construct the universe on the basis of atoms and since it accounts also for the origin of plants, animals and men. Some of the lines which touch upon the survuval of the fittest interestingly foreshadow Darwinism p61 One of these was Seneca (3 BC - 65 AD), a brilliant expounder of the Stoic philosophy in a series of twelve DIalogues and the author of the most famous surviving serious Latin tragedies. In these, the Stoic doctrine of practical necessity is worked out in terms of action, and characters are far more individualized than in Grecian drama.. Kyd, Marlowe, and eventually the author of Hamlet wre inspired by elements of intensity and sensationalism which they found in Seneca's plays p69 medieval religious drama.. mystery plays.. miracle plays, based on the legends of the saints, were simple in their dramatic form, and were written in the common tongue. The third form of medieval play, the morality, which shoed greater originality, was allegorical: It represented abstract qualities, like greed, piety, and mercy, as characters p73 most important of the poems in old English is Beowulf (about 700), an epic in Anglo-Saxon more than three thousand lines long.. Rhinegold being taken from the maidens of the Rhine River who guarded it, of the curse that was laid upon it, and of the struggle of the gods and giants, is still well known because RIchard Wagner, the German composer, has told the story of the Nibelungenlied.. SIegfried, is the son of a Valkyrie.. only a man without fear could mend this magic sword.. slew the dragon p90 Dante's use of the Italian language and his enthusiasm for the classic poet Virgil show that he was a herald of the age to come. The Middle Ages were ending, and a new era was beginning. The old Roman Empire had disintegrated. Latin had lost its place as the language of Europe, the modern languages had arisen. Printing had taken the plac of the romantic wandering minsrels. The period of the Crusades like the great religious fervor which had inspired them was over. The castles of the lords around which the teeming life of the Middle Ages centered had lost their importance and national governments were replacing the feudal system as governing agencies. The Renaissance was at hand p91 In addition, when in 1453, the Turks, capturing Constantinople, drove the Greek scholars to Italy, which had been almost lost to western Europe, beca,e an active source of inspiration.. The Renaissance began in Italy because of that country's nearness to Greece p99 The thought underlying The_Prince was that Italy should expel foreigners from its territory, restore its independence, and become unified under an absolute monarch.. Machiavelli frowned upon the use of any halfway measures. "Men," he said, "must be either caressed or annihilated, for men may avenge slight offences, but a grave injury they cannot avenge; therefore an injury must be inflicted in such a way that there can be no fear of a reprisal." Again, "It were well," he says, "if a prince could be loved and feared. But as this is difficult, it is essential that he should be feared." p100 believed that politics had nothing to do with morals, and should be considered as a science, regardless of justice or honor p103 Just as "Machiavellian" has come to mean crafty and treacherous, so "Rabelaisian" implies crude and coarse humor and love of physical comforts.. laughs at monks, at morals, and at traditions.. loved fine-sounding words and did not refrain from using them.. Rabelais is the bridge between medieval and modern literature. His satire on politics, the church, and law courts did not much give th epeople of his time a spirit of freedom and curiosity about ideals and customes which they had practiced for centuries unthinkingly. His sympathies fro children and for the underdog, and his love of the good things of life, make him a warm and very human figure. His ability to tell a story and his sharp insight into human character have made his work a permanent part of world culture p107 In these works, Luther, as leader of the Protestant Reformation, attacked the rule of the pope, insisted upon the supremacy of the German Kaiser, and demanded that the Bible alone should be law to every Christian. He asked for free education apart from the religious orders, and ordered the foreigners to leave the country. Luther's program gave the German people a more intense national feelings, and united them, both socially and culturally p111 Renaissance came late. The movement was delayed chiefly because during the reigns of Henry VIII, who tore England away from the Catholic Church, and of his daughter Mary, who tried to carry it back again, there were religious dissensions which split the kingdom wide apart.. ENgland during the reign of Elizabeth, therefore, began to feel its strength and to glory in its national greatness p112 The most famous of these numerous early English scholars was Sir THomas More (1478-1535), a friend of the great Dutch humanist and scholar, Erasmus. More, like Erasmus, wrote in Latin. In his Utopia, influenced by Plato's ideal commonwealth, desrcibed in the Republic.. More preached religious tolerance, although he did not, in real life, practice it. Becoming chancellor under Henry VIII, he lost his life on the scaffold because he refused to sanction the tyrant's marriage to Anne Boleyn p121 Unlike Seneca, the Elizabethans made their horrors take place on the stage, mixed comic scenes with tragedy, and allowed their plays to wander all over the world in setting and to cover long periods of time p122 It is only when we are familiar with the plays of the other Elizabethans that we begin to see that the development of a Shakespeare was not a miracle.. he took the Elizabethan drama as he found it; he wrote the plays his audiences wanted p123 he seldom invented a story.. enriched it to such an extent that he made it completely his own. In his hands the romantic comedy became a gay, tender, beautiful thing; Kyd's tragedy of blood turned into a play which seemed to explore and question the very foundation of human life; the tragi-comedy, or serious play with a happy ending, was lifted by his genius from absurdity to lovely romantic fantasy, shot through with the silver light of poverty.. His plays are never carefully constructed p135 Bacon, a typical man of the Renaissance, had two ruling passions - his own advancement and the advancement of learning.. Said Ben Johnson: "He was full of gravity in his speaking.. His hearers could not cough or look aside from him without loss.. fear of every man that heard him was lest he should make an end." A similar eloquence distinguished his writing p153 profane interests of the Renaissance were being gradually subdued and superseded by the moral austerity of the Puritans. Much of thi slatter quality was obvious in Comus, and certainly it reached its stern flower in "Lycidas" (1637), the last poem Milton wrote at Horton.. symbolism of this poem is particularly an instuctive study, for pagan imagery and symbols are joined with htose of Christianity.. Following a tour abroad where he met Galileo and was permitted to study further his interests, Milton spent twenty years as a public servant. King Charles's [cq] expedition against Scots brought Milton home, and he remained to fight with the Puritans against the abues of a decadent government. The poet saw early that the conflict between the two parties was not merely a struggle for power, but a conflict of two philosophies. It was morality agianst amorality; it was the spirit of free enquiry against tyranny and censorship p170 Moliere (1662-1673) was the stage name of Jean Baptiste Poquelin.. Gifted, humorous, experienced in the ways of the French by extensive traveling in the provinces.. talent for satire made him many enemies, and his benefactor, Louis XIV, had often to interfere.. Bourgeois_Genitlhomme (1670), a staire upon the uncultivated man who would beby pretense and posing a gentleman p185 [Samuel] Johnson's parents were poor.. His reputation was greatly enhanced by a dictionary of the English language, compiled upon a arge scale never before attempted, which he published in 1755. In his Lives of the English Poets (1779-81), he presented searching biographies as well as thoughtful criticisms.. stood steadfastly for the old order.. Sternly conservative p188 was also a member of The Club, Johnson's organization.. Burke was sympathetic with the cause of the American colonies, a defender of the ROman Catholics in Ireland and the oppresses masses in India, an advocate of constitutional liberty and the abolition of slavery. However, he opposed the French Revolution, because he saw the destruction of all social institutions in which he thought lay the foundations of true liberty and equality p206 In William_Tell (1804) Schiller dramatized his own love of freedom and hatred of tyranny.. Goethe wrote all of this in The_Sorrows of_Werther (1774), using his own experience for the principal part of the book.. Napoleon later carried the book on his Egyptians campaign, and once told Goethe hehad read it seven times.. one of the leading figures in the Sturm and Drang (Storm and Stress) movement.. personality became coldly Olympian, and he did not always have a gracious welcome for everyone p215 The deepest delver of the perios was Jonathan Edwards, Puritan divine.. did not shout or gesture, his listeners felt that he was the most moving preacher of his day.. writings naturally are a combination of that intensity with scintillating thought. His greatest achievement, a volume called Freedom of the Will.. no one who reads this work can fail to admire its logic and fervor p217 Washington Irving (1783-1859), the son of a well-to-do New York merchant, grew up to be a man-about-town and a dabbler in literature.. called "the Father of American Literature.".. His comic Knickerbocker's History of New York (1809) suggests one reason for it reveals that its young author had a natural flair for the picturing of American characters. Here were portrayed the Dutch burghers of his native Manhattan. "the long-sided, raw-boned, hardy" Yankees, and a "gunpowder race of men" - the Southerners, "who," he gibed, "lived on hoe cakes and bacon, drank mint juleps and toddy, and were exceedingly expert in boxing." p221 Deists like Franklin and Paine had questioned dogmas Calvinists took for granted. So had Unitarians, who, assuming that man was made in the image of God, asserted that therefore man must be fundamentally good.. doctrines expounded in the essays of Emerson were radical when compared even to the doctrines of Unitarians.. looked into his own life and thought for his messages to mankind p228 Abe Lincoln said to her - not unkindly but probably with some sense of irony, "So this is the little woman who caused the great war!".. Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) was beyond doubt the most influential work advocating the abolition of slavery pp238 skill of a narrative genius, he re-created the life of the little town of Hannibal and the ways of folk who lived on the shores and on the waters of the Mississippi River during antebellum times p239 classics which common men then and now could read, without effort and with keen delight. One of th emost American of our authors, Mark Twain.. Even Huck's use of the American language came at a time when writers were discovering the richness of the vernacular p246 exiled himself from Napoleon the Third's government and found a home at last in the Channel Islands.. magnificent portrayal of injustice, poverty, and crime, of human evil and goodness, Les_Miserables (1862) p247 Hugo's was one of the greatest minds of all literature; he was a man godlike in extravagant power and beauty of expression.. If Victor Hugo was the king of the romantic movement, the Alexandre Dumas the Elder (1802-1870), was the prince. Of noble and Negro blood.. Three_Musketeers (1844).. Energetic, brilliant, inventive, copious, Dumas was remarkable for his dramatic method. No novelist has had such success in bringing his characters into critical and climactic situations with such ease and in such unhakneyed ways.. Dumas allowed his characters to tell the story p254 going back to the past for materials; freeing oneself from all sorts of conventions about literature and life; turning from artificial, indoor life of the city to revel in the beauty of the country; turning, too, for material, to the simple griefs and joys of common life. Above all, however, Romanticism means that the poet believes in a new society and is disillusioned with the old.. revolting against the Neo-Classicism of the eighteenth century, a period during which literature represented the collective beliefs of men about life an poetry rather than their personal and individual ones. Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, and Keats differed widely from one another p261 George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824), was a Romanticist by virtue of his times more than because of his own real tastes.. Some of his poems, too, were written in the heroic couplet, the favorite eighteenth century satiric form. Yet, though Byron's greatest poetry was satiric, his satire was romantic.. When, however, Byron married a miss Milbanke, an intellectual good young lady, and she left him, English society turned against Byron so violently that he had to leave England, never to return. He spent some years in Italy, where he wrote Don Juan, and died in 1824, like a good Roantic, in pursuit of the liberty of the Greek people. The final self-sacrifice of Byron's has been interpreted to mean that his Romanticism was sincere at last. Those who think so forget that Byron never pretended, to himself, that he was a Romantic. He wanted to leave Italy - and Greece meant adventure p279 With his novel Crime and Punishment (1866), Dostoyevsky opened a new dimension in literature.. nothing else in all literature to match Dostoyevsky's "psychological" writing.. effectiveness of his blending of the inner and the outer may be seen, so the actual experience seems still part of the dream, while the dream itself is a confused projection of the reality troubling the depths of Raskolnikov's consciousness p298 real ancestors of modern commedy however were Sir William Schwenk Gilbert (1836-1911) and Oscar Wilde (1856-1900). Gilbert, in collaboration with the composer, Sir Arthur Sullivan, wrote operettas full of wit and absurd logic that made fun of all the Victorian solemnities p300 After a childhood full of hardship and drudgery, Dickens became a newspaper reporter, and then a writer.. Gilbert Chesterton, one of Dickens' most ardent admirers, has obeserved that Dickens never knew when he was writing badly because he wrote without such ease. The plots of many of the novels are melodramatic and unreal; the pathos is strained and exaggerated.. sobbing over his own pathos which irritates modern readers. They find fault, too, with his heroines, who are inclined to be soft and silly p309 "the Parnassians," a name gathered from one of the collections of their poetry. (Le Parnasse contemporain: 1866, 1869, and later). The greatest poet of this group was Leconte de Lisle (1818-1894), who revolted against the subectivity of the Romntics. He and his group believed in a detachment, an Olympian transquility, combined with the greatest attention to form.. "Symbolists," they rejected the polished, chiseled technique of the Parnassians, in favor of a method which may be called impressionistic. They represented a reaction against the all-pervasive Realism of their day, and their poetry contains many elements that may be considered decadent; their aim is to convey not exact meaning but a sort of suggested significance. They use words for their connotations rather than for their exact meanings p319 Shortly after the middle of the nineteenth century, a realistic trend initiated by Georg Brandes brought Norway to its golden age of literature in the works of "The Big FOur" - Lie, Kielland Ibsen, and Bjornson. These writers had a great influence not only in Norway but in Europe and America as well. The plays of Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) were tremendously important for their introduction of social problems into the theater #@# Columbia Hist Wst Philos 1999 ISBN1-56731-347-7 p33 Like Socrates' activites, Plato's dialogues provoke thought in others but deliberately leave their own conclusions ambiguous p35 Plato seems to think that practical problems can be truly, reliably solved only on a theoretical basis p47 Rhetoric and sophistry are attacked in many dialogues, but in the Phaedrus Socrates describes a "method of collection and division" that is often identified with Platonic dialectic and what is sometimes thought to be Plato's ideal rhetoric p48 just state, constructed as a means to discovering the just soul, consists of distinct classes, each of which sticks to its natural work: artisans and farmersalone rise crops and make goods, soldiers alone fight and protect, and guardians or philosopher-kings alone govern, while manifesting among themselves extreme equality of the sexes, communism and asceticism. There is here a serious belief that justice consists in a right ordering of parts in both souls and states, despite the "royal lie" to be told to children about their origins in the earth, the paradoxical definition of justice as "minding your own business," the moralistic censorship of poetry and music, and the governmental eugenic-breeding program p70 serve the interests of all its subjects, rather than its own.. Aristotle gathered material on the constitutional history of soe 158 states [like Madison!].. instead that it can only truly come to be through modest [Burkean?!] revision of existing ones p79 Pyrrho, who went to India on Alexander's expedition, was influenced in his scepticism by Magi and Gymnosophists (probably Brahmans) p80 Epicurius advanced the same ethical goal as Pyrrho - "freedom from disturbance" [meekness!] p95 Philo set out to build Moses into an early philosophic visionary rivaling [dualist] Pythagoras. His project was thus akin to others (such as Plutarch's essay On Isis and Osiris or its sources) that traced the origins of Greek religious wisdom beyond Pythagoras to Zoroaster or to early Egypt; unsurprisingly it made extensive use of allegorical interpretation in the Stoic manner p101 Gnostic systems are noted for the distance by which they separate the creator from the original principle of the spiritual world.. key figure in the latter stages of the spiritual world is sophia (wisdom), mother to the creator who may herself be at fault, and whose power is then scattered throughout humankind, to be restored eventually by salvation p115 Josephus' Stoic-like Pharisees condemn luxury; his Pythagorean-like Essenes share all things in common and are perfect masteres of their own souls p125 most accute Christian philosopher of the period, Gregory of Nyssa revised Origen's theology in the light of both this developing orthodoxy and of the post-Plotinian Platonism.. human soul is not a fallen intelligible being but is, of its nature, meant for material habitation in abody. The fall did not create human circumstances, it only latered and marred them.. soul's rehabilitation is not within the scope of its volition, but rests upon the initiative of the Creator as Redeemer p147 rabbi Akiba, who stated, "Everything is forseen; but freedom is given" (Mishna, Avot. 3:5) p187 Averroes insisted on the philosopher's right to interpret the Qur'an allegorically p193 Maimonides is not being disingenuous here. He is firmly committed to evaluating all arguments on their philosophical merits alone, and then corroborating the truth by reference to scripture p337-8 Descartes spent much of his adult life among Protestant thinkers, but he always claimed to be a Catholic. Descartes apparently hoped that his philosophy and science would provide the foundations for a new theology, just as Aquinas had sought to bring medieval theology into harmony with the Aristotelian science of his day.. remained on the "enemies list" for many Catholic philosophers right down to the present. In 1994, Pope John Paul II claimed that it was Descartes who, albeit perhaps unintentionally, set the stage for the destruction of the medieval Christian worldview p341 The debate between rationalists (who hold that knowledge is in whole or part dependent on mental structures) and the empiricists (who hold, following Aristotle, that "there is nothing in the intellect that is not first in the sences") has been with us since Plato's time. Since the seventeenth century, it has taken on a more explicitly ideological flavor. Descartes sees the human as a composite of two substances: mind and body. Descartes' argument that our minds have access to knowledge independent of environmental input presents a theory of human nature that is very inconvenient to church or state authorities who seek to control individual minds p349 Hobbes argues that the best kind of sovereign power is monarchial.. only satisfactory remedy was a state religion with the monarch as its head.. requires agreement by compact before there is in existence a power that can enforce.. no theoretical limit to the power of the sovereign p352-4 carefully designed experiments, science could not be conceived as a body of definitive knowledge about relaity. COnsequently it could not remain attached to any one philosophical tradition or school and must be entirely open to continuous revision.. Jesuits believe the best ways to keep Christians within the church were to liberalize Christian morals and develop a more optimistic and humanistic Christian anthropology. In their casuistic treatises, best known through Pascal's devastating criticism of them in the Provincial_Letters, the Jesuits softened the demands on the believer.. Pascal and his Jansenist friends saw humanist and worldly compromises as fundamentally detrimental.. contributed decisively to the public disparagement of the Jesuits.. According to Pascal, Luther and Calvin considered human nature so corrupt after original sin that although virtuous actions were possible, the merit belonged to God's grace, not human nature.. commands are neithe always possible (against the Pelagian/Molinist heresy) nor always impossible (against the Manichean/ Calvinist heresy).. Molinists take the prelapsarian state - and the Calvinists the postlapsarian - to be the whole of human nature.. Jansenist Augustinianism - reconciles the two positions by holding to the simultaneous reality of both states.. For Pascal and the Jansenists, both deviations from orthodoxy ultimately result from the contamination of theology by the rationalism and humanism of the pagan philosophies p363 ancient esoteric wisdom that God had imparted to Moses on Mount Sinai, but being Jewish and not pagan in origin, the Kabbala was considered by many to be the preeminent source for this prisca_theologia p381 Basnage was told by the rabbi that there was nothing original in Spinoza's work, that it was just the vew of the Jewish kabbalists, diguised in Cartesian terms.. pantheistic [masonic?] elements of kabbalism into a thoroughgoing naturalistic picture of the world, a metaphysics for a world without any supernatural deity p388 Locke sahres with Hobbes a commitment to a social contract.. We are all free and equal under that law, which itself has a divine source.. if you violate my rights, I in turn have the right to punish you.. very important right to property.. power is given to government to protect the natural rights.. fails to protect the individual's rights, then political society ceases to exist.. forfeits its right ot rule and rebellion is justified p415 William Temple (1628-1699), the English scholar-statesman, marvelled at the rtional and complex social and political organizations in China. In his essay "Of Heroic Virtue" (1690), he claimed that the CHinese government in practice exceeded the speculations in utopian p443 Hobbes and Spinoza were reviled as atheists because they had struck at the heart of the cultural authority of the church. It was precisely this challenge that the deists took forward into the eighteenth century, and the arch proponent of the Spinozist critique of the Bible was John Toland.. undercut the sanctity of both church and state p458 Hume never confronted religious thought head-on.. Instead he kept showing that there can never be adequate evidence to support any view on the subject p464 There are variations in religion, laws, traditions, and customs. But the most basic feature is climate, which determines how people can live, feed themselves, and otherwise survive. Montesquieu believed that governments are artificial p465 Voltaire's lifelong attack on the ancien regime, praising England in contrast to the oppressive situation in France p470 Rousseau in many works advocates the importance of the primitive, the original human nature before it was corrupted by civilization.. Voltaire, Diderot, and d'Holbach portrayed the European rleigious tradition as developing out of a barbarian, oriental, superstitious world and as maintained by the police forces of priests and tyrants p480 philosophy of common sence was influential among latte eighteenth- and nineteenth-cnetury philosophers in Scotland, France and the United States. Because of the strong religious connections between Scottish and American Presbyterians, Reid's philosophy took root early at the College of New Jersey, which later became Princeton.. explores the roles and uses of what he thus calls the ideal system through Descartes, Malebranche, Antoine Arnauld, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. As Reid sees it, the ideal system is a recipe for intellectual disaster. What started out as Descartes' attempt to eliminate scepticism has paradoxically resulted in Hume's scepticism p497 Kant introduces some of his most basic doctrines, and he provides a paradigm of the typical three-step argument structure of his work: a "metaphysical" isolation of a pure or a priori representation; a "transcendental" demonstration that this representation is needed for a given type of knowledge claim; and an introduction of a metaphysical "explanation" (transcendental idealism"), which alone make sence of the first two steps p499 In the transcendental dialectic, Kant shifts from defending a priori metaphysical claims to attacking the alleged justification of theoretical claims about the sould, the world, and God. The attack on rational psychology proceeds by first isolating a pure representation of the self - nmely, the representation of the subject that must be a component of any experience - and then arguing that this representation is not sufficient to show that the self is known as a substantial, simple, persistent, independent object. Fallacies that confuse the pure or transcendental representation of this subject with a particular objective claim are exposed as "paralogisms," false syllogisms that go astray because of a confusion of transcendental and empirical meanings p501 Thus in Kant's terms, one's "empirical character" can fit a completely lawful natural pattern, and yet one's having that pattern can be due ultimately to a nonspatiotemporal and free commitment at the level of one's "intelligible" character. Kan grants and even stresses that exactly how such a nonempirical causality works remains very obscure, but his main point is that this metaphysics and it alone at least leaves room for human freedom. It alone fits the commonsensical idea that a rationalperson cannot help but acknowledge what in the second Critique Kant calls the "fact of reason" - the legitimacy of the command of moral law (even if one fails to have the goodness to heed that command) and the idea that this law presumes the ultimate freedom of its adressee p508 Anti-Semitism existed already in the Roman Empire, which imposed special taxes on Jews because of their unwillingness to work or fight on the Sabbath or to recognize the gods of Rome p509 Africans were assumed to be descendants of Ham and his son Canaan, whose skin was reported to have been darkened because they disgraced Noah p521 Kant had argued that the beliefs in the existence of God, providence, and immortality are justified not by theoretical but practical reason.. necessary incentives for our duty to act according to moral law, which is based upon reason alone.. Kant's practical faith proved to be a mere stopgap for the crisis p522 young Romantics ascribed enormous importance to art, which they saw as the key to social, political, and cultural reform.. utopia was "the poetic state," where the prince is an artist, the director of a vast public stage in which every citizen is an actor.. criticism that had destroyed the olf bonds of nature and society. Nature had lost its magic, mystery, and beauty, now that reason had shown its spirits where myths; and society no longer provided comfort and belonging, now that reason had undermined all authority p536 concept of "spirit" (Geist) carries the weight of Hegel's anti-Kantian claim that knowledge arises out of the life of a people through their collective efforts [dialectical historical progression] over time to know the world and themselves p556 Marx's theory is best seen as further developing, often in important ways, certain aspects of Hegel's theory regarding alienation, the individual and a theory of knowledge basd on finite human existence p561 Nietzche sees the "historical sence" of his day as a kind of induced sleeplessness that inhibits decisive action p562 Nietzsche's will to power represents an expansion of Shopenhauer's will to live that is more consistent with the Dionysian impulse of self-overcoming, of becoming, of destroying for the sake of creation p589 German immigrants.. study group to keep up with German thought.. Saint Louis Philosophical.. English translations of Hegel's.. German immigrants to support the abolishment of slavery p596 James also accepted an instrumentalist conception of theories. He held that a theory is not "an absolute transcript of reality" but an instrument of prediction whose only standard is utility in organizing experience.. Overbeliefs must not affect decisions that have social consequences; for example, decisions as jurors or public servants must be solely on evidence p633 The philosopher wishes to discover a similar key to reality, but according to Wittgenstein, philosophy is not a fact-finding activity. On the contrary, it does not so much disover patterns in reality as impose a conceptual model upon them. This act of imposition itself leads to misunderstanding, misdescription, and paradox p647 Popper draws an important distinction between verifiability and falsifiability. A theory may have overwhelming evidence in its favor, and yet the adducing of such evidence may never result in determining whether the theory is true. Verification is thus open-ended. Instead, scientific theories should be tested for falsifiability. A theory that in principle is falsifiable is scientific and not metaphysical [used in genomics] p704 For "existentialism" like "Enlightenment" denotes not so much a historical period as an attitude, a style, and a message. The attitude is that of repect for freedom and for being. The style is authenticity. And the message is the optimistic reminder. You can alwasy make something out of what you've been made into p713 Jaspers believed that all philosophers who offered "proofs for the existence of God" actually aimed to prove God exists. But, of course, "a proven god is no god." On the other hand, "belief in revelation" (Offenbarungsglaube) is a dogmatic claim about a "proximate god" who "effects changes through intervention" and who commissions representative authorities. The alternative is "philosophical faith" (philosophische Glaube) #@# Dewey, Ethics p5 1960 (1908,1980) p5 Moral theory cannot emerge when there is positive belief as to what is right and what is wrong, for there is no occasion for reflection. It emerges when men are confronted with situations in which different desires promise opposed goods and in which incompatible courses of action seem to be morally justified. Only such conflict of good ends and of STANDARDS AND RULES of right and wrong calls forth inquiry into the bases of morals. #@# Science reporter David Brown reflects on What's Wrong (and Right) with Science Journalism. American Scholar; Autumn2009, Vol. 78 Issue 4, p120-120, 1p, 1 color Scientific evidence in a form that is explicable, even if boiled down, should be a part of almost every story about a discovery, a new insight, a revised theory, a more precise diagnostic strategy, a better therapy. Science reporting, in fact, should be the model for evidence-based journalism... If there isn't enough information to give you, the reader, a fighting chance to decide for yourself whether something is important, then somebody isn't doing his or her job. [from a speech David Brown, of The Washington Post, delivered at the University of Iowa in 2008 for the Project on Rhetoric of Inquiry] #@# Heilbroner Worldly Philosophers Touchstone 1953-1995 p18-19 In primitive society, the struggle between self-centerednes and cooperation is taken care of by the environment; when the specter of starvation can look a community in the face - as with the Eskimos - the pure need to secure its own existence pushes society to the cooperative completion of its daily labors.. But in an advanced community, this tangible pressure of the environment, or this web of social obligations, is lacking p57 consider what Adam Smith has done, with his impetus of self-interest and his regulator of competition. First, he has explained how prices are kept from ranging arbitrarily away from the actual cost of producing a good. Second, he has explained how society can induce its producers of commoditiies to provide it with what it wants. Third, he has pointed out why high prices are a self-curing disease, for they cause production in those times to increase. And finally, he has accounted for a basic similarity of incomes at each level of the great producing strata of the nation. In a word, he has found in the mechanism of the market a self-regulating system for society's orderly provisioning p81 Contrary to the landed proprietors, the capitalists wanted cheap grain, for the price of ood largely determined the amount they would have to pay for labor p83 Such abuse was bound ti befall a man who urged "moral restraint" on the world. And yet Malthus was neither a prude (by the standards of his times) nor, certainly, an ogre. It is true that he urged the abolition of poor relief and even opposed housing projects for the working classes.. according to his theory the basic trouble with the world was that there were too many people in it.. since he would then propogate, such charity was only cruelty in disguise p106 machinery meant the displacement of laboring hands by uncomplaining steel. As early as 1779 a mob of eight thousand workers had attacked a mill and burned it to the ground in unreasonng defiance of its cold implacable mechanism of efficiency, and by 1811 such protests against technology were sweeping England. Wrecked mills dotted the countryside and in their wake the word went about that "Ned Ludd had passed.".. The Luddites, as they were called, were fired by purely spontaneous hatred of the factories that they saw as prisons anf the wagework that tehy still despised p132 voluntarily regulate their numbers. With the pressure of population on wages removed, Mill's model took a different turn from those of Riccardo and Smith. As before the tendencies of the accumulaton process would bid up wages, but this time there would be no flood of children to lessen the pressure of wages on profits. As a result, wages would rise and the accumulation of capital would come to an end. THus Mill's system approached a high stationary [equilibrium) plateau, just as Smith's or Riccardo's would have done had it not been for their relelntless population pressures. But now comes another departure. Rather than seeing a stationary syaye as the finale of capitalims and economic progress, Mill sees it as the first stage of a benign socialism p154 The pattern of intolereance was never to disappear.. persistence of that narrowness, that furiating and absolute inability to entertain dissent, which communism has inherited from its single greatest follower.. final contribution lies elsewhere: in his dialectical materialist theory of history p157 because the capitalists monopolize one thing - access tot he means of production themselves p267 For if the decisions are out of joint - if the businessmen invest less that the community tries to save, for example - then the economy will have to adjust to the crimp of depression. The [Keynesian] vital question of boom or slump depends more that anything else on this p270 For the General_Theory had a startling and dismayiong conclusion. There was no automatic safety mechanism at all! Rather than a seesaw that would always right itself, the economy resembled an elevator: it could be going up or down, but it could also be standing perfectly still.. stagnant indefinitely p277 Government spending was meant as a helping hand for business. It was interpreted by business as a threatening gesture p291 small, dark, aristocrtatic man with a taste for portentous prose and theatrical gestures. When he lacture on the economy at Harvard in the midst of the depression, Joseph Schumpeter strode inti the lecture hall, and divesting himself of his European cloak, announced tot he startled class in his Viennese accent, "Chentlement, you are vorried about the depression. You should not be. For capitalism, a depression is a good cold douche." Having been one of those startled listeners, I can testify that the great majority of us did not know that a douche was a shower, but we did grasp that this was a very strange and certainly un-Keynesian message p295 As a resut of these innovations a flow of income arises that cennot be traced either to the contribution if labor or of resource owners #@# Ben S. Bernanke, Vincent R. Reinhart, and Brian P. Sack FRB WP 2004-48 Following Bernanke and Reinhart (2004 American Economic Review, 94(2): 85-90), we group these policy alternatives into three classes: (1) using communications policies to shape public expectationorbonds as a means of reducing the long-term interest rates ; and (3) changing the composition of the central bank about the future course of interest rates; (2) increasing the size of the central bank #@# Phelps JPE 76#4 1968 generalized excess demand can be regarded as a derived function of the unemployment rate and the rate of change of employment.. expected rate of wage change is then added.. if there are downward money-wage rigidities, then, up to a point, every one percentage point increase of the expected rate of wage change produces less than a one percentage point increase of the actual rate of wage change.. But at sufficiently small (steady) unemployment rates, equilibrium is impossible, and, under the adaptive expectations theory, an explosive hyperinflation will result. #@# Mundell JPE 1963 71#3 money rate of interest rises by less than the rate of inflation and therefore that the real rate of interest falls during inflation.. based on the fact that inflation reduces real money balances and that the resulting decline in wealth stimulates increased saving #@# Calvo JPE 85#3 1977 increase in the rate of expansion of money supply leads to an instanta- neous deterioration of the real exchange rate. In the long run, however, the latter moves back to its previous level.. for that of the optimal "crawling peg" is that, except at the steady state, it would be incorrect to index the nominal exchange rate by the difference of domestic and rest-of-the-world inflation rates, if the objective is to guide the economy along paths with self-fulfilling expectations. #@# Milton Friedman JPE 94#3 1986 Monetary economists have generally treated irredeemable paper money as involving negligible real resource costs compared with a commodity currency. To judge from recent experience, that view is clearly false as a result of the decline in long-term price predictability #@# Sargent Wallace JPE 83#2 1975 under an interest rate rule the price level is indeterminate #@# Milton Friedman JPE 69#5 1964 changes in the stock of money exert an independent influence on cyclical fluctuations in eco- nomic activity with a lag that is both long and variable relative to the average length of such fluctuations. #@# Friedman & Schwartz JPE 90#1 1982 Short-term assets are a closer substitute for money than long-term assets, and hence our intuitive expectation is that a decline in short rates would tend to raise the quantity of money demanded by more than the associated rise in long-term rates would decrease it. The counterintuitive result reflects the countervailing influence of the weights. In general, closer substitutability of short-term than of long-term assets for money will mean that they get a higher weight in the appropriate substitute portfolio, which means that to keep the average yield constant, long-term rates will have to rise by more than short-term rates fall, which offsets the closer substitutability of short-term assets. #@# This Time is different Reinhart & Rogoff, Princeton 2009 p271 [Crises prototype] financial liberalisation simultaneously facilitates banks' access to external credit and more risky lending practices at home. After a boom in lendning and asset prices, weaknesses in bank balance sheets become manifest and problems in the banking sector begin.. central bank begins to provide support for these institutions by extending credit to them. If the exchange rate is heavily managed (it does not need to be explicitly pegged), a policy inconsistency arises.. exchange rate objective is subjugated p272 to the role of the central bank as the lender of last resort. Even if central bank lending to the troubled financial industry is limited in scope, the central bank may be more reluctant to engage in an "interest rate defense" policy to defend the currency than would be the case if the financial sector were sound.. At this stage, the banking crisis eithe rpeakes following the currency crash (if there is no soveriegn credit crisis) or keeps getting worse as the crisis mounts and the economy marches toward a sovereign default.. currency crashes tend to be more serious affairs when governments have been explicitly or even implicitly fixing (or nearly fixing) the exchange rate #@# New American Economy, Bruce Bartlett, palgrace 2009 p3 money supply to decline by a third between 1929 and 1933.. Keynes, Irving Fisher, and many others perfectly well undestood the monetary origins of the Great Depression virtually from day one p6 interest rates on Treasury bills, which were close to zero and even turned negative for a brief period, they would have realized that federal borrowing was not preempting any private uses of saving p17 On November 19 [1929], Babson added his voice to those blaming the tariff for the market's malaise p18 Benjamin Strong, president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and the Fed's dominant figure through most of the 1920s, was deeply concerned about what he viewed as a stock market bubble but didn;'t know how to deal with it without bringing the whole economy down p29 The anti-inflation zealots also forgot that debts were fixed innominal dollars.. Although interest rates had fallen, debtors still had to pay off their debts with dollars that were worth much more than the dollars they had borrowed. Also interest rates could not fall by enough to compensate for the deflation because they could not go below zero p45 Keynes's opposition to inflation flowed from his belief in the importance of stable money - he was equally opposed to inflation and deflation. Many so-called hard-money people today adamantly oppose inflation but don't complain about the problems of deflation, and often view it positively. Keynes was not one of these. In his view, the main effect of inflation was to impose a de facto tax on capital - which in practical terms meant on the wealthy, whom he called the rentier class, those who didn't work for a living and lived off income from capital. But at the same time, inflation benefited the business class, which was able to increase prices faster than costs rose, leading to higher profits. Deflation, on the other hand, mainly hurt workers because it led to unemployment as real wages increased, forcing employers to lay off p51 Lower interest rates by themselves would not bring forth additional investment because of a liquidity trap that results when market rates are so low that money and binds become virtually interchangeable.. requires the government to engage in deficit financing precisely for tge purpose of increasing market rates p57 In the last article he ever wrote, Keynes tried to turn the clock bak toward the classical economics that had been thoroughly discredited by the length and depth of the Great Depression and ultimately superseded by Keynesian economics p87 By 1974 Nixon's price controls were breaking down rapidly, allowing pent-up inflation to explode. At the same time, the most severe recession of the postwar era began. This is when Keynesian economist who had adopted the Phillips curve really lost credibility p91 antirecession programs simply wasted money.. accustomed to the government enacting countercyclical.. underinvest during upturns.. Even small lags.. are highky destabilizing.. artificially stimulate demand.. delaying the readjustment.. inflationary pressures.. stage for future recessions p105 Although the Steiger bill was officially scored as a revenue-loser, after it was enacted into law in 1978 the Joint Committee on Taxation (JCT) conceded that the bill would probably raise revenue, which was confirmed by subsequent research.. These models were often used to evaluate public policies and almost universally had Keynesian underpinnings. This tended to bias public policy in favor of Keynesian policies long after they were generally discredited p124 It will come as a surprise to many people that the intellectual origins of supply-side economics can be traced to a fourteenth-century Muslim philosopher named Ibn Khaldun. In his masterwork, The Muqaddimah, he argued that high taxes were often a factor in causing empires to collapse, with the result that lower revenue was collected from higher taxes p127 postwar era, economist COlin Clark argued that excessive taxes become inflationary above 25 percent of the gross national product. John Maynard Keyenes agreed with Clark that "25 percent taxation is about the limit of what is easily borne." Keyenes had previously noted [Wr 21:145], "Aggressive taxation may defeat its own ends by diminishing the income to be taxed" p132 higher taxes and bigger government reduce growth.. 1999 study by MArtin Feldstein [RES] found that the deadweight cost ofthe tax system was 32 percent of the revenue.. cost of tax progressivity and capital taxation is now considered to be far higher than previously thought and there is growing support among reputable tax experts for a flat tax on a consumption base and total elimination of taxes on capital [Conesa, JME 2006] p133 Despite a reduction in the top marginal income tax rate from 70 percent in 1980 to half that since 2003, the share of total income taxes and the effective rate of taxation by taxpayers with higher income has risen sharply - exactly as the supply-siders predicted p137 Historically, supply-siders strenuously opposed tax credits because they generally don't affect incentives at the margin. The preferred supply-side approach to tax-cutting involves reductions in tax rates or provisions that reduce taxable income because the tax saving is a function of one's marginal tax bracket. By contrast, tax credits are subtracted directly from one's taxliability and have no impact at the margin because all taxpayers are treated the same regardless of their income or tax bracket p163 There is now a grwoing fear among such people that the ultimate result of reliance on starving the beast to support tax cuts may be to make future tax increases inevitable.. move the tax/GDP ratio in the United States closer to that in Europe p190 I think Republicans would do better to spend their diminished political capital figuring out how to finance the welfare state at the least cost to the economy and individual liberty, rather than figuring a losing battle to slash popular spending programs #@# New Deal Constitutionalism and the Unshackling of the States Spring, 1997 64 U. Chi. L. Rev. 483 Stephen Gardbaum Specifically, the expanded powers of Congress under the Commerce Clause, which enabled it to reach "local" activities for the first time, were transferred from the states, thereby ending (in effect if not in name) their previously exclusive power over intrastate matters.. Although it is most certainly the case that the Court granted the federal government extensive new constitutional powers during the New Deal era, it is very far from clear that these powers were simply transferred from the states as the nationalist account assumes.. not a shift from exclusive state authority to concurrent federal and state authority, but a shift from a regulatory vacuum to concurrent powers: both federal and state governments were constitutionally enabled to regulate a large number of areas of social and economic life that previously they had both been prohibited from regulating.. In 1886 and 1887, the Supreme Court for the first time announced the doctrine of substantive due process, meaning that the liberty sections of the two Due Process Clauses were deemed to grant certain substantive rights to individuals that limited the authority of Congress and the states to regulate private--especially economic--activity.. In sum, considering the impact of substantive due process alongside the conventional focus on the Commerce Clause permits us to see that, contrary to the straightforward nationalist account, the net result of the Court's leading decisions in both areas was far less a massive transfer of powers from the states to the federal government than a shift from a regulatory vacuum to concurrent powers.. A second radical change in doctrine undertaken by the New Deal Court that reduced the previously established constitutional limitations on state regulatory power concerned the "dormant" Commerce Clause.. certain dicta of Chief Justice Marshall expressed clear support for exclusivity and the vision of a single market, but his successor, Chief Justice Roger Taney, vigorously asserted the contrary position: namely, that the Commerce Clause in itself has no negative implications for state sovereignty..     It follows from what was said above that a necessary feature for creating and maintaining a common market in a federal system is that state governments are limited in their power to take measures that have the effect of restricting the flow of imports per se, since such measures are not uniform and so undermine the commercial unity of the federation as a whole.. The new constitutional strategy was the reverse of the old one: in place of relatively constrained federal powers coupled with the automatic preemption of the states when these powers were exercised, the Court combined the enlargement of the permissible scope of congressional power with a presumption that state authority survives the exercise of these powers unless clearly ended by Congress.. In 1897, the Court held that the right to compensation for private property taken for public use contained in the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment was also guaranteed against the states under the Fourteenth Amendment.. Pullman abstention is named after the 1941 case of Railroad Commission of Texas v Pullman Co, in which the Court through Justice Frankfurter held that where the action of a state is challenged in federal court on the basis both of unsettled state law and federal constitutional grounds, the federal court should decline to exercise jurisdiction until the state law issue has been definitively answered by the state courts in the hope that this will resolve the case and avoid the necessity of addressing the federal constitutional question.. ordered the federal tribunal to abstain from exercising jurisdiction over the case until definitive resolution of whether the order was lawful under state law had been attained in the course of state court proceedings.. Prior to the 1930 case of Home Insurance Co v Dick,n294 the predominant territorial-vested-rights theory of Joseph Beale's First Restatement had been virtually constitutionalized by the Supreme Court, under the rubric of the Due Process and Full Faith and Credit Clauses.. The fact that reasonable regulation by both state and federal governments of "private" economic activity was now constitutionally permissible for the first time tells us little about the scaling back of the dormant Commerce Clause, Congress's power of preemption, and the incorporation doctrine, or the various increases in state judicial power that occurred.. The fact that the constitutional revolution of the New Deal period unshackled and empowered the states in so many different areas also suggests that the standard contemporary connection between support for the role of the "states as states" and political conservatism is a contingent and not a necessary one.. To a significant degree, the Lochner era federal courts took the lead in constraining state power in order to resist the reformist agendas of the Populist and Progressive movements, which had their greatest triumphs at the state legislative level and threatened to undermine what the courts viewed as the twin constitutional norms of freedom of contract and the national economy.. vision expressed by Justice Brandeis in the course of a powerful dissent from a 1932 decision invalidating a state statute on substantive due process grounds: "There must be power in the States and the Nation to remould, through experimentation, our economic practices and institutions to meet changing social and economic needs." #@# Zizioulas, Being as Communion, StVlad, 1985, ISBN 0-88141-029-2 p43 only way of excercising absolute ontological freedom for man is suicide; then freedom leads to nihilism.. limitation of personal freedom in the name of..symbiosis p70 By referring to Christ as the Alpha and Omega of history, the New Testament has transformed radically the linear historicism of Hebrew though, since in a certain way the end of history in Christ becomes _already_ present here and now p79 Now if a Greek mind was unable to say in_the_same_breath 'being and life,' the Chritian had to p80 Christ is the truth not because he is an epistemological principle which explains the universe, but because he is life and the universe of beings finds its meaning in its incorruptible existence in Christ p91 ekstasis signifies that God is love.. creates an immanent relationship of love outside_Himself.. _otherness_ of being p94 Creaturely truth is dependent.. communion_by_participation (as compared with God, who is truth as Communion_without_participation) p99 [Maximus Sch_in_eccl_hier 3,3:2] Old Testament are shadow; those of the New Testament are image [icon]; and those of the future state are truth p100 The authentic Greek patristic tradition never accepted the Platonic notion - adopted by Origen and St Augustine among others - in which perfection belongs to the _original_ state of things p102 [fall] no creative power in evil .. limitations and potential dangers inherent in creaturehood.. left to itself.. fall consists in the refusal_to make_being dependent_on_communion p121 freedom given by the Christ-truth to creation is precisely ths freedom from division and individualizationn creating the possibility of otherness within communion p129 Not only baptism and confirmation were separated in the West, but Christology tended little by little to dominate Pneumatology, the Filique being only part of the new development p135 local bishops-Churches can do nothing without the presence of the 'one'.. the 'one' cannot do anything without the 'many' [unanimity and consensus] p149 Catholicity.. _wholeness and _fullness and _totality of the body of Christ 'exactly as' it is portrayed in the eucharistic community. p156 The moment they admit a super-local structure over the local eucharistic community, be it a synod or another office, the eucharistic community would cease to be in itself and by_virtue of_its eucharistic_nature a 'catholic Church.' The moment, on the other hand, that they would allow each community to close itself to the other communities either entirely (ie, by creating a schism) or patrially [cq] (ie, by not allowing certain individual faithful from one community to communicate in another or by accepting to communion faithful excluded from it by their own community they would betray the very_eucharistic nature_of their_catholicity and the catholic character of the eucharist p161 eucharistic _anamnesis becomes not a mere mental operation but an existential realization, a _re_-representation of the Body of Christ.. no plan for a progressive movement can be achieved on a purely historical and sociological level.. _eschaton can only break_through history but never be identified with it. Its call to catholicity is a call not to a progressive conquest of the world but to a 'kenotic' experience of the fight with the anticatholic demonic powers and a continuous dependence upon the Lord and His Spirit p174 Mission requires _sending to the ends of the earth, whereas the eschata imply the _convocation of the dispersed people of G*d p185 epiclesis means escatologically that the Church asks_to receive_from G*d_what she_has already_received historically_in Christ_as if_she had_not received_it at_all, ie as if history did not count in itself p187 eucharist is on the one hand, a 'tradition' (paradosis) and a 'remembrance' (anamnesis)..At the same time, however, the eucharist is the eschatological moment of the Church par_excellence p207 Tradition is not just passed on from one generation to another; it is constantly re-enacted and re-received in the Spirit p218 two other parts of the procedure of ordination, namely _election by the people and acclamation of approval (in the East by crying 'axios')..early Church could dispence with the part of the election by laymen.. _outside.. different with the approval of the people within.. 'democracy' which makes the community a _condition for divine action.. _new, and not the old, _creation.. differ essentially from a human 'democracy' p242 not a juridical thing but a matter of charismatic _recognition.. true council becomes such only a_posteriori; it is not an institution but an event in which the entire community participates #@# Aristotle, ed Apostle&Gerson, Peripatetic, Iowa 1986 p116 [Posterior Analytics I 18] It is evident that if a faculty of sensation is absent from the start, some corresponding science must be lacking, seeing that a science cannot be acquired if indeed we learn either by induction or by demonstration p293 [On the Soul III 8] We may now sum up the main points concerning the soul under one heading and state once more that the sould is all things, but in a certain sense; for things are either sensible or intelligible, and in a certain sense, knowledge is the objects known while sensation is the sensible objects p433 [Nichomachean Ethics I 11] For in none of man's actions is there so much certainty as in his virtuous activities (which are more enduring than even scientific knowledge), and the most honorable of these are the most enduring becausethose who are blessed live according to them most of all and most continuously; for this seems to be the reason why we do not forget them. The attribute, [ie the permanence] in question, then, will belong to a happy man, and he will be such a man throughout his life; for he will be engaged always or most of his actions and studies of things dom=ne according to virtue, and he will bear the fortunes of life most nobly and with propriety in every way like a man who is truly good and 'foursquare beyond reproach'. Now there are many events which happen by chance, some of great but others of small weight; and it is clear that [for a virtuous man] those which are of small weight, whether bringing good luck or its opposite, do not have [much] influence of life, while those which are great and numerous make life more blessed if they turn out well (for these, too, by their nature add to the order and beauty of life, and the use of them becomes noble and good), but they restrict or ruin the blessedness of a man if they turn out to be the opposite, for they bring along pain and impede many activities. Yet nobility shines out even when a man bears many and great misfortunes with calm and ease, not through insensibility to pain, but through nobility of character and highmindedness p440 [NE II 2] First, then, let us perceive this, that is the nature of such things [ethical values] to be destroyed by deficiency as well as by excess, as we observe in the case of strength and of health (for we should use as evidence what is apparent for the sake of what is obscure), for both excess and deficiency in the excercise destroy strength; and similarly, when too much or too little drink or food is taken, it destroys health. Such is the case also with temperance and bravery and the other [ethical] virtues; for a man who flees from and fears everything and never stands his ground becomes a coward, but he who indulges in all [bodily] pleasures and abstains from none becomes intemperate, but he who avoids them all, like a boor, becomes a sort of insensible man; for temperance and bravery are destroyed by excess as well as deficiency, but they are preserved by moderation (or the mean) p464 [V 3] This kind of justice, then, is complete virtue, but in relation to another person and not in an unqualified way. And, because of this, justice is ften thought to be the best of the virtues, and "neither evening nor morning start" is so wonderful; and, to use a proverb, "in justice is included every virtue" p575 [Politics III 7] Of governments which deviate from the right forms, tyranny is opposed to kingship, oligarchy is opposed to aristocracy, and people's rule opposed to democracy. For tyranny is a monarchy which aims at the interest of the monarch [only], oligarchy aims at th einterest of the prosperous [only], people's rule aims at the interest of the poor [only], but none of the aims at the common interest p579 [Pol III 10] Perhapsone might say that, in general, it is bad for a man and not the law to have authorit, seeing that a man is subject to th epassions of the soul p580 [Pol III 11] then just as the physician is accountable for his medical work to other physicians, so should any other artist be accountable for his work to his peers p588 [Pol IV 11] The former [poor] tend to become insolent or great criminals, but the latter [rich] rather mischievous and petty rascals; for,, of unjust treatments, some come about because of insolence, others because of mischief. again, these [the middle class] are least given to an [inordinate] love of power or rule, both of whiach are harmfu tp states p602 [Pol VII 14] The facts themselves confirm the arguments that the lawgiver should rather see to it that both military and other legislation be ordered for the sake of leisurely activity and peace. Yet most military states, though preserved while at war, perish after having established an empire; for, lik eunused steel, they lose their temper in time of peace. And the case of this is the lawgiver who has not taught them how to live in leisurely activity p611 [Rhetoric I 2] Of the means of persuasion to be supplied by speech there are three kinds: (a) those which depend on the character of the speaker, (b) those which depend on causing the listener to be disposed in a certain manner, and (c) those which depend on proof or apparent proof given through speech.. character is perhaps the most effective means of persuasion. Persuasion because of the listeners is brought about when their emotions are aroused by the speech p701 [glossary] Doxa: opinion; doctrine; reputation p705 [glossary] Praotes: good temper #@# Cavarnos ModGrkThough 1986 1969 0-914744-11-9 p12 Modern Greek Philosophy.. existential orientation (2) Personalism. (3) Idealism or Transcendentalism. (4) THe ranking of philosophy above science. (5) The ranking of Christian teaching above philosophy. (6) Christian eclecticism. (7) The use of ancient Greek philosophy as preparatory discipline p13 [Theodorakopoulos] "Man has a depth of immense potentialities; this is the soul" p14 He notes that Kierkegaard, whom twentieth century Existentialism regards as its creator, declare that he is a pupil of Socrates.. Geoegoulis.. notes that St Gregory of Nyssa, anticipating the views of modern existentialists, rejects so-called objectification p15 personalilty is the highest value, to which everything else is in principle subordinate.. identical with the soul p16 "Dialectical Personalism." Frangos seeks to reconcile the scientific vision of the world with the spiritual, in which personality is the supreme value p17 The ultimate end of the State [Tsatsos, 1975-79 President] says in his Studies_in the_Philosophy of_Law, is neither power nor material hapiness. THese are only means, usually necessary for the attainment of its true purpose, which is education for virtue.. [Idealism] affirmation of a reality other than the material, physical world p26 Androutsos here rejects the custom that has prevailed in the West of having two kinds of ethics, one religious and the other philosophical. This, he says, goes back to the medieval "double truth" theory, according to which what is theologically true may be philosophically false, and vice versa.. there must be one ethics.. must "utilize the materials provided both by the external and by the Christian tradition" pp50-1 In 1950 there was published in Athens, in English, a book entitled Towards_a Christian_Civilization. Though written by Alexander Tsirintanis (1903-), Professor of Jurisprudence at the University of Athens, it expresses not only his own avowed beliefs but also those of more that twelve hundred Greek professional men, including two hundred scientists.. "Coming to grips with the evil at its roots will mean in substance an opposition to the negation of Christian values. It was on that negation that the edifice of the civilization, whose ruins we are witnessing today, was built" p61 Benjamin of Levos. "Only then is man a likeness of God, when he has rendered himself actually rational and virtuous; and in order to become acually rational and virtuous one needs training and education" Alos characteristic is the following statement by the [diplomat] poet George Seferis (1900-), who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1963: "Learning is one of the noblest exercises of man and one of his loftiest aspirations. Education is the ruling factor of his life. And since these principles are true, we must not forget that there is good education - that which liberates man and helps him develop fully according to his nature - and bad education - that which perverts and dessicates and is an industry producing pseudo intellectuals" [Dokimes, 1962 p180] p65 Reason as conceived by these and other modern Greek writers is not to be identified with the reason of Western rationalism, but rather with that of the ancient Greeks, particularly Plato, and the Byzantines. It is not only discursive, but also contemplative, intuitive, capable of a direct apprehension of reality and of value. Reason is capable of distinguishing beauty from ugliness, and good from evil, as well as truth from falsehood. Even theologians, who tend to emphasize conscience as man's moral guide, assert the moral function of reason. Thus, Theotokis remarks that "reason (logos) is a light that illumines man in the distinction between good and evil"; while St Nektarios [Hypotyposis 1893 pp67-8] says: "Reason teaches an what the will of God is, what good and evil, the just and unjust are, and guides deeds towards ideal perfection" p68 calls reason a "merchant" and a "peddler".. unbridled imagination is Kazantsakis' ruling faculty.. derived from Scopenhauer's cosmic voluntarism, Bergson's pantheistic evolutionism, Marx's materialism, and Nietzsche's nihilism #@# The new Cavafy. Bowersock, G.W. American Scholar; Spring96, Vol. 65 Issue 2, p243, 15p Cavafy was undoubtedly one of the most historically minded poets of modern times. He read extensively in works of historical scholarship in Greek, English, and French, and he was so attentive to original sources that one of his unfinished poems, on Athanasius's telepathic perception of Julian the Apostate's death, remained unfinished solely because he was unable to locate the precise source of the episode in the Greek patrologia of Migne. Cavafy engaged in a lively debate with Gibbon through marginal notes in his personal copy of the Decline and Fall.. It was the overseas Hellenism of the centuries after Alexander the Great that attracted Cavafy. He became the poet of the Hellenistic age, of the Roman Empire, and, most remarkably of all, of the Byzantine Empire all the way down to its end in the fifteenth century.. Yet Cavafy saw the Hellenism of the Byzantine Empire not as a corruption of the Greek polytheist past but as an affirmation of it.. With four poems devoted to John Cantacuzenus in 1924 and 1925, we have to ask what attracted Cavafy so strongly to this rather pathetic figure of late Byzantine history. Something in his reading of Gibbon, Paparrigopoulos, Gregoras, and John had clearly found an echo in himself. I suspect it was the courage of John in successfully resisting the authority of the established patriarchate #@# Conley Rhet Eur Trad 1990 0-226-11489-9 p12 By means of his dialectical technique, Socrates [Phaedrus] establishes a model of an apparently legitimate kind of rhetoric. Unlike that professed by Gorgias in th dialogue of that name, the rhetoric Socrates describes is a a true "art" (techne) involving knowledge of reality (262Aff.), of the forms of discourse and of the corresponding kinds of souls (271Aff.) This rhetoric, morevover, does not corrupt, as Gorgias' did. The true rhetorician will adapt his discourse to the type of soul being addressed, proceeding by the way of diaresis to "carve up (diatemnein) the subject at the joints" (see 265E), thus communicating the truth effectively. This "rhetoric" is dialectical in character, then; and it is the role of dialectic in that it guarantees its legitimacy (277B-278B) p15 Pisteis are either "artisitic" or "nonartistic," and it is the former that are able to be treated systematically. The three sources of persuasion that fall within the purview of te art of rhetoric are the character of the speaker as it comes acros in the speech (ethos), the disposition of the audience toward the speaker and the matter at hand (pathos), and the speech (logos) itself "when we have demonstrated a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to the case in question" (1356a1-21). These are at all times coordinate and interact mutually, distinguishable but not seperable from one another, although one may occasionally take precedence over the others (3.12, 1413b3ff). p30 The teaching of rhetoric centered on an analysis of the art into component parts: invention, the modes of discovering arguments; arrangement; expression, which included the study of style in argumentation; memory; and delivery, including both pronounciation and gesture. This five-part analysis persists throughout the history of rhetoric into the eighteenth century. Similarly, the analysis of the parts os speech into five (sometimes six) parts became a pedagogical commonplace. Every speech, students were taught, had to include a prologue (prooimion in Greek, exordium in Latin); narration (diegesis, naratio); arguments (pistis, sonfirmatio); rebuttal (lysis, reprehensio); conclusion (epilogos, peroratio). This format, too, persists into the eighteenth century p66 Perhaps the most famous figure from this period is Photius, Patriarch of COnstantinople twice in the ninth century, a strong oppnent of Iconocalsm, and the greatest scholar of his time. The works of Photius that have a bearing on rhetoric for this period are his Lexicon, the encyclopaedic Bibliotheca (sometimes found with the title Myriobiblos, "Of Ten Thousand Books") and a corpus of 18 sermons. The Lexicon is, essentially, a dictionary of Attic Greek, the dialect of high literacy and of the grand style in rhetoric. pp135-6 Richard Sherry (1506-56?).. best-known work is a Treatise on Schemes an Tropes (1550, revised in 1555), which he conceived as an introduction for grammar school students to "elocution" - that is, expression.. calls the third part rhetoric. The book is divided into two major parts, the first treating schemese and tropes considered from a "grammatical" perspective and the second treating them from an "oratorical" oerspective. The grammatical sction consists of three parts: (1) a survey of the "schemes" (figures) if diction and composition; (2) the faults and virtues of diction and composistion; an (3) tropes. These topics are "grammatical" because they have to do with clear, proper, and refined usage and expression. The :oratorical" section takes up rhetorical figures, presenting them accrding to Melanchthonian three orders of figures: (1) figures of expression, such as repetition, exclamation, and interrogation; (2) figures of thought: partition, enumeration, and the like; and (3) modes of amplification, the heeping of probacions," as he puts is #@# Kennedy Hist Class Rhet 1994 Princeton 0-691-00059-x pp4-5 in writings of Cicero in the first century BC and of Quintilian a century later, classical rhetorical teaching consisted of five parts that parallel the act of planning and delivering a speech.. The first of the five parts of classical rhetoric is "invention" (Gk heuresis, Lat inventio). THis is concerend witht hinking out the subject matter: with identifying the question at issue, which is called the stasis of the speech, and the available means of persuading the audience to accept the speaker's posistion. The means of persuasion include, first, direct evidence, such as witnesses and contracts, which the speaker "uses" but does not "invent"; second, "artistic" means of persuasion, which include presentation of the speaker's character (ethos) as trustworthy, logical argument (logos) that may convince the audience, and the pathos or emotion thatthe speaker can awaken in the audience. The artostic means of persuasion utilize "topics" (Gk topoi, Lat loci), which are ethical or political premises on which an argument can be built or are logical strategies, such as arguing from cause to effect.. basic divisions recognized by the handbooks and applying best to judicial oratory are (1) introduction, or prooemium (Gk prooimion, Lat exordium); (2) narration (Gk diegesis, Lat Narratio), the exposition of the background and factual details; (3) proof (Gk pist[e]is, Lat probatio); and (4) conclusion, or epilogue (Gk epologos, Lat peroratio) p233 By the third century he had become known as "Chrysostomos," or "the Golden Tongue," an epithet later also given to the Christian orator, John of Antioch. Dio was born in Prusa around AD 40 p261 The most important figure in the synthesis of Greek rhetoric and Christianity is Gregory of Nazianzus, rightly regarded as the greatest Greek orator since Demosthenes #@# Pelikan Divine Rhetoric 2001 0-88141-214-7 pp28-9 [Nazianzos] Ethos. Striving for the mean, which he defined as a Christian humility without excessive "submissiveness" and a no less Christian self-assertion withou "harshness," [Or 42.13].. characterized himself as one of those "who make public their treasure, unable to restrain themselves from giving birth to their piety, and without bestoring upon others the overflow of their blessongs" [Or 42.14] Pathos.. "Confidence [tharsos]" was defined by Aristotle as "hope of safety accompanied by an imagination that is near" [Rhet II v16 1383a].. "Shame [aischyme]" was defined by Aristotle as "a sort of pain and agitation concerning the class of evils, whether present or past or future, that seem to bring a person into disrespect" [Rhet II vi 2 1383b].. Logos. Because, as Aristotle specifies, persuasion deals with "things that seem to be capable of admitting two possibilities," and therefore with "things that seem to be capable of admitting two possibilites," and therefore with "things that are for the most part capable of being other than they are".. Gregory appealed to bishops and to people to preserve, protect, and defend loyalty to the secred Tradition at all costs. To that end, he invoked the authority of "witnesees": his hearers, "on behalf of whome and in whose presence I speak," were "my defense, my witnesses, and my crown of rejoicing"[Or 42.2] p74 Orthodoxy itself seemed to be in jeopardy when Antiochene exegesis sought to put a limitation on allegory. Yet in some of its outstanding representatives Antiochene exegesis was impeccably Orthodox p75 Not so, Chrysostom argued, "for nowhere in Scripture do we find any mention of the earth that is merely figurative." Hence the passage must mean that Christ as the master Rhetor sought to "put his hearers into a certain frame of mind" both by the prospect of eternal glory and by the promise of temporal gain, a literal "earth" that they would possess p78 The fifth book of Chrysostom's treatise On_The_Priesthood is a succinct description of the qualities that a Christian preacher and rhetorician must have. Among these, two were of special importance to Chrysostom, paradoxical though the combination may seen to be: an indifference to the plaudits of one's hearers, and the ability to speak skillfully. <<..if a preacher be indifferent to praise, and yet cannot produce the doctrine "which is grace seasoned with salt" [Col 4:6] he becomes despised by the multitude, while he gains nothing from his own nobleness of mind; and if on the other hand he is successful as a preacher, and is overcome by the thought of applause, harm is equally done in turn, both to himself and the multitude, because in his desire for praise he is careful to speak rather with a view to please than to profit>> [V:1-2] p99 Aristotle lists is "the character [ethos] of the speaker," which, he declares, "is almost, so to speak, the controlling factor in persuasion".. howeverthat such a sence of the character and credibility of the speaker "should result from the speech, not from a previous opinion that the speaker is a certain kind of person" [Rhet I ii 2-4 1356a].. Kennedy [1991 p184] goes on later to clarify that "in religious.. unsupported maxims made by an authoritative teacher can be effective, as in the case of many sayings of Jesus" p107 because of his "gentleness [epieicheia]" [2Cor10:1] Christ refrained from vindicating His authority in this way [Chrys 7:20] What He did say as the supreme Rhetor was "Did you give praise to what has been said? No, I do ot want applause.. One thing only do I wish, that quietly and intelligently listening, you should do what is said. That is the applause, this is the panegyric [Chrys 5:37] p117 "The second [depends] upon putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind [[ton akroaten diatheinai pos]]. [Rhet I ii 3 1356a] And again: "[[There is persuasion]] through th ehearers when they are led to feel emotion [[pathos]] by the speech; for we do not give the same judgement when greived and rejoicing or when friendly an dhostile" [Rhet II iv 32 1382a] p124 Throughout the Sermon on the Mount, the divine Rhetor, being guided by an awareness of the limits of what His audience were equipped to handle at this time, exercised "so much reserve in His language, that He might not startle His hearers" [Chrys 5:17] p125 Instead of delivering advice or issuing commands to them at the outset of the Sermon, He began by pronouncing the Beatitudes, "making His word less burdenson and opening to all the course of His discipline" [Chrys 5:3].. closing paragraphs he reiterated that "not wealth, not strength of body, not glory, not power.. but only the possession of true virtue" was the mark of the true disciples of Christ [Chrys 7:25] "a noble spirit, a rock laughing waves to scorn, a house unshaken," so that just "as he who wraps up fire in a garment, does not extinguish the flame, but consumes the garment, so he that is doing harm to virtuous men, and oppressing them, binding them, makes them more glorious, but destroys himself" [Chrys 7:26] p134 Aristotelian rhetorical category of "logos, the message of change".. most all-inclusive metaphor for change in the Sermon on the Mount, one that had all the attributes of "clarity and sweetness and strangeness" that characterize an effective metaphor according to Aristotle's RHetoric [III ii 8 1405a] was announced already in its opening words, the first of the Beatitudes, "Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven".. pushed this change to the utter extreme of commanding "Love your enemies" p141 There was, Chrysostom admonished, "nothing that makes us so like God as being ready to forgive the wicked and the wrongdoers" [Chrys 6:14-15] #@# College Manual of Rhetoric, Charles Sears Baldwin (Yale) Longmans Green 1906 p76 deductive reasoning which is perhaps most obviously a priori is the argument from antecedent probability.. shows which way the probablitieis lean before the case is investigated; it establishes a presumption p77 The typical form ofdeductive reasoning is the syllogism.. major premise is ideally a universal, indisputable truth; the minor premise indicates the course of the argument, which is to prove that a particular instance falls with in that universal, indisoutable truth; the conclusion follows of necessity p78 informal syllogism, or a syllgoism whose major premise is not the ideal "universal," but simply an accepted generalization, is called an enthymeme. Persuasion, then according to Aritotle, deals with enthymemes, with incomplete syllogisms.. John Stuart Mill in the five "canons" what are known by that name.. "I The Canon of Agreement. If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigtion have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance is which alone all the instances agree is the cause (or effect) of the given phenomenon" p79 " II. The Canon of Difference. if an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs and an instance in which it does not occur have every circumstance save one in common, that one occuring only in the former, the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part of the cause, of the phenomenon. The principle is that of comparing an instance of the occurence of a phenomenon with a similar instance in which it does not occur, to discover in what they differ" pp79-80 "III The Canon of the Joint Method of Agreement and Difference. If two or more instances in which the phenomenon occurs have only one circumstance in common, while two or more instances in which it does not occur have nothing in common save the absence of that circumstance, the circumstance in which alone the two sets of instances differ is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part" p80 "IV. The Canon of Residues. Subduct from any phenomenon such part as is known by previous inductions to be the effect of certain antecedents, and the residue of the phenomenon is the effect of the remaining antecedents" pp80-1 "V. The Canon of Concomitant Variations. Whatever phenomenon varies in nay manner, whenever another phenomenon varies in some particular manner, is either a cause or an effect of that phenomenon, or is connected with it through some fact of causation" p82 Working Rules for Ordinary Induction.. Beware of rash generalizations.. Test your supposed cause or effect both positively and negatively.. Try to show that your alleged cause is.. the only material change.. or.. no other supposed cause accounts so well.. Look for a parallel rise and fall of your supposed cause and efect p83 collection of facts which, though it is not sufficient for a solid inference of cause, yet points in that direction.. called circumstantial p84 Another form of reasoning, not strictly either deductive or inductive, is the argument from analogy (a_pari), the argument from history. This amounts to saying that like things have like results. Its force depends on the extent and degree of likeness. p172 Every subject of description thus presents to the writer a complexity of details.. cannot write at all, much less compose, without selection. And the selection must be personal [heuristics!].. remember always the point of view; the mental point of view which is the writer's conception, and the physical point of view.. details which he knows to be there, but which, from the point of view fixed by him, are not visible.. error of the false elaboration of background p175 allusions to history.. an inheritance.. tiresome when, instead of allusion, it is bald reference or expository comment.. interlard scenery with history is tolerable only in a guide-book, which is not in our sence descriptive at all but expository. THe facts of history must be presented in description just as the facts of observation are presented, by suggestion p177 masters of description see minutely.. habit acquired by practice.. scientist scents a classification; the artists sents another kind of import.. artistic value of detail is its significance p178 natural difficulty in holding more than a few details together [short term mem holds about five items].. avoid explanatory interpolations p180 often advisable also to indicate a simple plan by which the details may be mentally grouped.. panoramas are not often successful in description p181 Details, being seen afterward, should be described afterward. Of devices, one of the most common is contrast.. have an order, and to say as little about it as possible.. p182 danger of letting the narrative parts, which for purposes of description are mere trnsitions, mere machinery, occupy too much space p183 suggesting something by its effects upon the actors or bystanders #@# Perelman New Rhetoric 1958 Notre Dame 1969 0-268-00446-3 p16 To engage in argument, a person must attach some importance to gaining adherence of his interlocutor, to securing his assent, his mental cooperation. p20 in the passage in the Rhetoric [II 12-17] dealing with the factors of age and fortune in audiences, Aristotle includes many shrewd descriptions of a differential-psychological nature that are still valid today p24 The great orator, the one with a hold on his listeners, seems animated by the very mind of his audience p28 We are going to apply the term persuasive to argumentation that only claims validity for the particular audience, and the term convincing to argumentation that presumes to gain the adherence of every rational being p31 For a composite audience, such as a parliamentary assembly, will have to be regrouped as a single entity to make a decision, and it is extremely easy for the opponent of an incautious speaker to turn against him all the arguments he directed to the different parts of the audience, either by setting the arguments against each other so as to show their incompatibility or by presenting them to those they were not meant for p37 Dialogue, as we consider it, is not supposed to be debate, in which the partisans of opposed settled convictions defend their respective views, but rather a discussion, in which the interlocutors search honestly and without bias for the best solution to a controversial problem. Certain contemporary writers who stress this heuristic viewpoint, as against the eristic one, hold that discussion is the ideal instrument for reaching objectively valid conclusions [Baird ADD p307 1950] p41 It also very often happens that discussion with someone else is simply a means we use to see things more clearly ourselves p57 Nevertheless, all societies are anxious to secure unanimity, for they are aware of its value and foce. Thus opposition to an accepted value may lead a person to prison or a mental institution p77 abstract values, such as justice or truth, and concrete values, such as France or the Church. A concrete value is one attaching to a living being, a specific group, or a particular object.. Western morality.. Greco-Roman.. obligation, fidelity, loyalty, solidarity, and discipline.. Confucius' five universally binding obligations - between rulers and the ruled, father and son, husband and wive, older brother and younger brother, friend and friend p91 Aristotle [Topics III 2] says that the more difficult is preferrable to the easier, "for we appreciate the possession of things that cannot easily be acquired" p103 arguments that are valid for some people have no validity for others, who may even find them very strange p106 once a decision has been taken, it cannot be changed except for sufficient reason p107 fear of creating a precendent which crops up in so many decisions pp110 ad_rem corresponds to an argument that is claimed to be valid for all reasonable beings, that is, ad_humanitatem. Argument ad_humanitatem would be a special, but important, case of ad_hominem p111 Argument ad_hominem must not be confused with argument ad_personam, which may be defined as a personal attack on the opponent and which aims essentially at disqualifying him p140 universal values, which are regarded as the instruments of persuasion par_excellence, are designated by the notions which are most confused p147 To create emotion, it is essential to be sepcific.. The more specific the terms, the sharper the image they conjure up p152 absence of technique can be a method; even being natural can be deliberate behavior p198 logical approach assumes that one can clarify sufficiently the ideas one uses, makes sufficiently clear the rules one invokes, so that practical problems can be resolved without difficulty by the simple process of deduction.. practical man who resolve sproblems only as they arise.. do not want to commit themselves more than is necessary, who want to keep as long as possible all the freedom of action that circumstances will permit.. diplomatic approach.. avoid.. coming into conflict with a principle or solving, in any way, the conflict between two incompatible principles p207 Ridicule is often achieved through clever deductions drawn from what one is attempting to criticize.. reductio_ad_absurdum p213 The argumentative character of definitions always presents two closely connected aspects which must nevertheless be distinguished, since they deal with two prhases of the reasoning: definitions can be supported or validated by argument; they themselves are arguments p264 The causal link plays an important part in historical reasoning, which appeals to retrospective probability.. antinomy between the reflections on the cause by proceeding from a certain interpretation of the event and reflections on the event by proceeding from a certain interpretation of the cause p270 These reflections, opposed to the pragmatic argument, assume that moral and religious values are not subject to discussion, that the rules of truth and falsehood, of good and eveil, independently of their consequences, or at least of their actual and immediate consequences p274 Modern techniques of publicity and propaganda have thoroughly exploited the placticity of human nature which makes possible the development of new needs and the disappearance or transformation of old ones. These changes confirm that only ends stated in a general and vague manner remain invariant and universal and that the end is often made cleare by examination of the means [Barnes 1948 Ari Soc; vs Maslow?] p290 Hyperbole differs from the usual argumentation by means of unlimited development in that it is not justified or prepared, but fired with brutality: its role, however, is to give a direction to thought, to guide it toward a favorable evaluation of this direction, and only by a return shock is it intended to give an indication of the significant term p295 The object, defined in terms of its properties, provides the modl for a concept of the person, stabilized on the basis of certain of his acts, which are transformed into qualities and virtues and which are integrated into an unvarying essence. But if the person did not have the power of self-transformation, of change, of conversion and could not somehow turn his back on the past, education would be a farce, morality would be without meaning, and the ideas of responsibility, of guilt, and of merit, which are bound up with the idea of freedom of the person, would have to be abandoned in favor of a simple pragmatic appraisal of behavior p342 The double hierarchy argument makes it possible to base a contested hierarchy on an accepted hierarchy. It is therefore most useful when rules of conduct require justification p355 Acording to Karl Popper [1935 pp12-14; falsifiability], it is the weakening of a rule by the invalidating case, with the subsequent rejection or modification of the rule, which provides the sole criterion making it possible to verify a law of nature emprirically p373 [theme <- A:B::C:D <- phoros] A and B together, the terms to which the conclusion relates.. we shal call the theme, and C and D together, the terms that serve to buttress the argument.. we shall call the phoros.. phoros is better known than the theme of which it should clarify the structure or establish the value p403 Any analogy - unless like allegory or parable, it is confined within a rigid form - turns into metaphor quite spontaneously p413 The dissociation of concepts, as we understand it, involves a more profound change that is always prompted by the desire to remove an incompatibility arising out of the confrontation of one proposition with others, whether one is dealing with norms, fats, or truths. There are practical solutions enabling the difficulty to be resolved exclusively on the plane of action; they can prevent the incompatibility from occuring, or dilute it in time, or sacrifice one or even both of the conflicting values. At this practical level, the dissociation of notions amounts to a compromise p464 The self-evident, as the criterion of validity, is the authority for totally discrediting all_argumentation, on the grounds that it is effective thought it does not provide real proof and can therefore be rooted only in psychology, and not in logic, even in the broad sence of the term p467 Certain figures, such as those of insinuation, reticence, litotes, reduction, and euphemism, are a part of the techniques of restraints insofar as the speaker expects that they will be interpreted as the expression of a desire for moderation p469 damage caused by anticipation of an argument extends to discourse of the kind in which the conclusion is known in advance and so no freedom is left to the speaker p472 Sometimes, however, convergence can be verified and then we have what Whewell calls consilience, which regards as the most secure foundation for inductive reasoning p474 advantages offered by the accumulation of arguments fall into two groups: those that have to do witht he relations between arguments and those that are referable to the diversity of audiences p480 Napoleon was afraid that long preambles to laws would weaken their authority p501 In legal proceedings, the ancient orators used to end their speech with an attack on the person accused so as to rob, in advance, his defense of all value, thus making it necessary for the accused to regain in his exordium the goodwill of his hearers and judges, by trying to get rid if the unfavorable state of mind created by his adversary's peroration #@# Diplmcy (Negoc Souverains) Callieres 1647-1717 1983 Leicstr 0-7185-1216-2 p70 [Richeleu Pol Test 1688] "That inferior minds confine their thoughts within the bounds of the country where they are born; but those to whom God has given a greater degree of light, omiting nothing that may be of defense to them from afar" p73 knowing the force and efficacy of negotiations; every day's experiences furnish us with sensible effects thereof. They occasion sudden revolutions in great States; they arm Princes and whole nations against their own interests; they raise seditions, hatreds, and jealousies; they form leagues, and other treaties of different atures among Princes and States who have opposite interests; they destroy and break the strictest unions. And it may well be said, the art of negotiating, according as it is ill or well managed, gives the form, good or bad, to general affairs, and likewise to a great number of particular ones; and that it has a greater power over the conduct of men than all the laws that have been enacted p75 talents required are: a spirit of attention and application, which is not capable of being distracted with pleasures and frivolous amusements; a right judgement, which may be able to comprehend things clearly as they are and pursue the main point by the shortest and most natural ways, without insisting upon niceties, and vain subtleties, which usually discourage those we treat with; a quick penetration to be able to discover the secrets of men's hearts, and to take advantage of the least motions of their countenances, and of the other effects of their passions, which escape sometimes even men of the greatest dissimulation; a spirit fertile in expedients, for overcoming the difficulties which arise in adjusting the interests wherewith one is charged; a readiness of mind to be able to give a proper answer to matters that are unforeseen, and by the judicious answers to avoid a slippery step; and evenness of temper, and a sedate and quiet disposition, always ready to hear patiently those whome he treats; a free access, courteous, civil and agreeable; an easy and engaging carriage, which contributes much to gain the affections of those whom we have to do with; whereas a grave and cold air and a severe rugged manner, commonly disgusts, and causes aversion p76 that he take care to avoid falling into the error of a famous foreign ambassador [Dijkvelt?] of our own times, who was so hot in dispute, that when he was little warmed by contradiction, he would often disclose secrets of importance, the better to maintain his argument.. An able minister will take care that no man shall penetrate into his secret before the proper time, but it is necessary likewise, that he know how to conceal this reservedness from those with whom he treats. He must appears to be frank and open with them.. commerce of mutual intelligence; one must give, in order to receive p78 But those expenses must be laid out with artifice, so as that the persons for whom the presents are intended may be able to receive them with decency and safety p79 We have seen musicians and opera women, who, by the free access thay had to certain Princes and their ministers have discovered very great designs.. There is no readier way to defeat any great design, than by divulging a secret at a proper time p82 minister ought to have a steadiness of mind as well as courage. There are some people who are naturally courageous and brave, who have not this sort of firmness; which consists in closely pursuing a resolution, when it is once taken after due deliberation, and not to vary in his conduct upon the different ideas which frequently present themselves to minds that are naturally irresolute. This weakness is common to persons of a lively imagination p83 error to believe, according to the vulgar opinion, that an able minister ought to be a great master in the art of deceit..leaves a grudge and a desire of revenge p84 nobody should ever doubt of what he promises.. If the times become difficult, and any misfortune happens to him, these masters of deceit will be the first to undo him by their treachery and will always join with the strongest side pp86-7 very difficult for a man who is easily worke dup into a passion to keep his secret when his choler [choleric:irrascible] is raised.. [Mazarin] had the dexterity to put him in a passion and, by that means, discovered what he could never have been able to have penetrated if the duke [Feria] had known how to restrain his passion.. speak little and hear a great deal.. not much in haste; that he does not think of ending for ending's sake but to end with profit, and to take advantage of all the favourable conjectures that offer, and especially of our impatience p88 A minister ought not only not to be subject to any humours or whims of his own, but he ought to know how to accomodate himself to those of others. He ought to be as Proteus in the fable: always ready to put on all sorts of shapes, according as occasion and necessity may require. He must be gay and cheerful with young Princes, who love mirth and pleasure; he is to be serious with those who are serious; and all his attention, all his care, all his passions, and even his diversions, should tend to only one end, which is: to procure success in the affairs with which he is charged p96 not prudent for him to defer the study of the government of every cuntry to which he is sent till he arrives there, for that is to travel into unknown countries, and to expose one's self to the dangers of going astray.. are usually so full of our own manners and customs, that they believe those of all nations ought to resemble them.. although there is no difference in the name of dignity.. advisable for a good minister to know wherein these differences of governments do consist, that he may be able, according to the several conjuntures, to make use of those opposite powers, in order to attain his ends.. finding out means to make them quit their prejudices and prior engagements, and to enter into new ones, which is the great art of negotiation p97 not sufficient to search for them in books. They are acquired much better by conversing with men employed in those kind of affairs p99 ought likewise not to bestow too much of their time on those studies; one that is engaged in public business ought to consider that he is designed for an active life, and not to spend too much of his time in his closet; that his chief study ought to be to inform himself of what passes among the living, preferably to what passed among the dead p110 saying of an ancient philosopher [Aristotle Ethics], that the friendship which os between men, is only a commerce wherein everyone seeks his own interest.. none of them but what are founded on their mutual advantages; and when both sides do not find their advantage by the treaties, the do not subsist long and they fall of themselves. So that the great secret of negotiation is to find out the means of reconciling those common advantages, and making them, if it is possible to keep even pace together p111 devouring to gain his point by the force of reason and persuasion, will give himself haughty airs, pretending to threaten people into a compliance with his proposals, he ought to have an army ready.. Prince who no longer has enemies that are capable of gainsaying his pleasure, imposes tributes on the other neighboring potentates; But a Prince who labours to aggrandize himself, and who has potent enemies, ought to be liberal and bountiful towards his inferiors, that he may augment the number of his friends and allies, and he ought not to exert his power, except in doing good p115 may and ought to discover what are the prominent passions and inclinations of the Prince with whom he resides: whether he be ambitious, whether he be a man of application and industry; whether he loves war, or prefers his ease or pleasures to business; whether he governs by himself, or is goverend by others, and how far; what is the genius, th einclinations, and the interests of those who have the management of him. He ought to inform himself exactly the condition of his forces, both by land and sea; the number of his strong towns and castles.. intrigues that are in the court, whether they be factions and divisions p116 A good table is the easiest and best way of getting intelligence of what passes, when the people of the country are at liberty to go and dine with the ambassador.. occasions of joy or grief.. pay this civility p117 until he receives his master's orders, but ought to signify to the Prince that he knows his master's intentions so well, that he can assure him beforehand p122 better to send back such ambassadors, than to punish them. Guards may be put upon them, to hinder them from continuing thair practices until they be out of the kingdom; and this may be done under a pretext of taking care of their safety p132 Instructions, however judicious thay may be, are more or less useful in proportion to the degree of understanding which the person who is charged with them is endowed with. An able minister knows not only how to execute the orders of his master with dexterity, but he furnishes him with advices and expedients how to take advantage of the favourable conjectures that offer themselves for bringing his designs to bear p136 Secretaries of the embassy, chosen and paid by the King, would be of great use to preserve the secret of the negotiation, which is often entrusted with persons of an indifferent character, because the ambassadors grudge the expense that is necessary for procuring men of fidelity, and capacity to serve them well p137 ought especially to study the Prince, his humour, his inclinations, his virtues and his weaknesses, that he may be able to make right use.. no Prince but who has some confidant or other to whom he imparts with more than usual freedom his most important affairs, it is therefore highly necessary, that the minister should study at the same time the temper of the ministers and confidants p138 advantage of the passions of a Prince, or his ministers, such as those of a grudge for injuries received, or a jealousy against some other potentate.. passions prevail often over the greatest interests p139 One of the best means of persuasion, is to please. And to succeed in that, a minister ought to make it his business to say agreeable things, and to soften, by the choice of words, by the tone, the air, and the manner of expressions, those messages which are disagreeable in themselves. Princes are accustomed form the cradle.. certain truths which seldom reach their ears.. avoid shocking that pride p140 never give false commendations.. praise them on account of those things which are essentially inherent in them p141 kinswoman of the Pope's.. considerable sum at stake, the prelate [Odescalchi?] let the lady draw it, although he had won the game; and he threw down his cards under the table, after having cunningly showed them to the lady's chamberlain.. made him a cardinal p143 Whatever corruption and malignity may reign in the hearts of men, yet still there are but few who do not listen to right reason, especially when he who is master of it to a certain degree of perfection, studies always to employ it to make himself useful and agreeable to them, as much as is in his power. Every ingenious man, who has a strong desire to make himself agreeable to another man with whom he has business, most commonly succeeds in it, and finds out means to procure to himself a favourable hearing.. ought not for all that to abandon the pursuit of his design p147 There is hardly any man that will own himself to be in the wrong [Dale Carnegie & botanist], or to be deceived; or can be prevailed on to lay aside his own sentiments entirely in favor of those of others, when no other method is taken with him, but to contradict him by contrary reasons, however strong and and convincing the said reasons may be. But there are many who are capable of being persuaded to depart from some of their own opinions.. lay aside their prejudices.. However unreasonable the greatest part of men may be, yet they retain always that respect for reason.. make them sensible of it, without offending their pride and vanity p149 An able negotiator ought to take upon himself the care of reducing the articles of the treaty into writing; because he who drafts them has the advantage of having it in his power to express the conditions agreed on in the terms that are most favorable to the interests of his master, without deviating in the least from the particulars agreed on between the parties p151 When he has obtained the promise of any thing of importance for the service of his Prince, he ought to lose no time in procuring the accomplishment of it.. ought first to have very positive orders in writing, that he may not be blamed, nor disowned p152 settled correspondence with some of his own friends at court, who will take the pains to inform him particularly of everything that passes, that he may be thereby enabled to dissipate the false rumours p159 But there are few things which can remain long a secret among men who have a long commerce together: the intercepting of letters, and many other unforeseen accidents, to often discover them; and it were an easy matter to quote several instances of that kind here. It is therefore prudent in a skillful minister, to think within himself when it is in writing, that his dispatches may possibly be seen by the Prince or ministers, of whom he writes; and that he ought to word them, so that they may have no just occasion to find fault with them p169 usually men of learning.. especially with republics.. Princes, who prefer courtiers, and thos eof the army before them.. Man of the sword are also more likely ti insinuate themselves into the favour of the ladies, who commonly have a good deal of credit in most courts p173 However, as there is no general rule without an exception, a hard drinker succeeds sometimes better than a sober man, in treating with the minister of the northern countries; provided he knows how to drink without losing his own reason, whilst he makes others lose theirs p174 young minister is ordinarily presumptuous, vain, light and indiscreet.. old man is peevish, full of difficulties, finding fault with everything, condemnin the pleasures which he himself is no longer able to partake.. middle age is the properest for negotiations: because there one finds experience, discretion and moderation, which are wanting in young people; and vigour, activity and an agreeable humour, which forsake old men #@# Pers Self Portr Oldham & Morris 1990 Bantam 0-553-05757-X p18-9 Personality disorders, on the other hand, are long-term patterns of inflexible and maladaptive behavior that are manifest from adolescence. Without treatment thay last a lifetime.. certain personaility disorders create vulnerability to specific clinical-symptom syndromes. The acute conditions erupt under particular kinds of stress.. Most of the people who ocnsult mental health professionals have difficulties that can be traced, at least in part, to aspects of their enduring personality patterns.. Many people with disordred personality patterns do not realize that there is anything amiss with them pp71-2 Obsessive-Compulsive.. perfectionism.. details.. unreasonable insistence that others submit to exactly.. excessive devotion to work and productivity.. indecisiveness.. overconscientiousness, scrupulousness, and inflexibility.. restricted expression of affection.. lack of generosity.. inability to discard pp93-4 Narcissistic.. reacts to criticism with feelings of rage, shame or humiliation.. interpersonally exploitative.. grandiose.. believes that his or her problems are unique.. preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty.. entitlement.. requires constant attention and admiration.. lack of empathy.. envy p122-3 Dependent.. unable to make everyday decisions without an excessive amount of advice or reassurance.. allows others to make most of his or her important decisions.. agrees with people even when he or she believes they are wrong.. difficulty initiating projects.. volunteers to do things that are unpleasant.. helpless when alone.. fears of being abandoned.. hurt by criticism p143 Histrionic.. constantly seeks or demands reassurance, approval, or praise.. inappropriately sexually seductive.. emotion with inappropriate exaggeration.. uncomfortable in situations in which he or she is not the center of attention.. shallow.. self-centered.. style of speech taht is excessively impressionistic and lacking in detail pp167 Paranoid.. expects, without sufficient basis, to be exploietd or harmed.. questions, without justification, the loyalty or trustworthiness.. read hidden, demeaning or threatening meanings.. bears grudges.. reluctant to confide.. easily slighted.. questions, without justification, fidelity p188-9 Avoidant.. easily hurt by criticism or disapproval.. no close friends.. unwilling ti get involved with people unless certain of being liked.. avoids social or occupational activities that involve significant interpersonal contact.. reticent in social situations because of a fear of saying something inappropriate or foolish, or of being unable to answer a question.. fears being embarrasse by blushing, crying, or showing signs of anxiety in front of other people.. exaggerates the potential difficulties, physical dangers, or risks involved in doing something ordinary but outside his or her usual routine pp 212-3 Passive-Aggressive.. procrastinates.. argumentiative when asked to do something.. work deliberately slowly or to do a bad job.. protests.. avoid obligations by claiming to have "forgotten".. resents uselful suggestions.. obstructs.. scorns people in positions of authority pp235-7 Antisocial.. fails to conform.. irritable and aggressive.. fails to plan ahead.. no regards for the truth.. reckless.. lacks remorse p259 Scizotypal.. excessive social anxiety.. odd beliefs or magical thinking.. unusual perceptual experiences.. eccentric.. no close friends.. odd speech.. silly, aloof.. paranoid p279 Schizoid.. solitary.. indifferent.. aloof, cold p301-2 Borderline.. unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterized by alternating between extremes of overidealization and devaluation.. impulsiveness.. self-damamging.. shifts from baseline mood.. intense anger.. persistent identity disturbance.. emptiness or boredom.. frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment pp330-1 Self-Defeating [masochistic].. lead to disappointment, failure, or mistreatment.. renders ineffective the attempts of others to help.. following positive responds with depression, guilt, or a behavior that produces pain.. incites angry or rejecting responses from others and then feels hurt, defeated, or humiliated.. rejects opportunities for pleasure.. fails to accomplish tasts crucial to his or her personal objectives.. uninterested in or rejects people who consistently treat him or her well.. engages in excessive self-sacrifice that is unsolicited by the intended recipients of the sacrifice p354 Sadistic.. physical cruelty.. establishing dominance.. humiliate sor demeans.. disciplined.. unusually harshly.. takes pleasure in.. physical sufffering of others.. lied for the purpose of harming.. intimidation or even terror.. restrict the autonomy.. fascinated by violence #@# Psychiatric misadventures. McHugh, Paul R. American Scholar; Fall92, Vol. 61 Issue 4, p497, 14p PSYCHIATRY IS A RUDIMENTARY MEDICAL ART. It lacks easy access to proof of its proposals even as it deals with disorders of the most complex features of human life--mind and behavior.. During the thirty years of my professional experience, I have witnessed the power of cultural fashion to lead psychiatric thought and practice off in false, even disastrous, directions.. Each misdirection was the consequence of one of three common medical mistakes--oversimplification, misplaced emphasis, or pure invention.. The most conspicuous misdirection of psychiatric practice--the precipitate dismissal of patients with severe, chronic mental disorders such as schizophrenia from psychiatric hospitals--certainly required a vastly oversimplified view of mental illness. These actions were defended as efforts to bring "freedom" to these people, sounding a typical 1960s theme, as though it were not their illnesses but society that deprived them of freedom in the first place.. The claim that schizophrenic patients are in any sense living an alternative "life style" that our institutions were inhibiting was of course fatuous. It is now obvious to every citizen of our cities that these patients have impaired capacities to comprehend the world and that they need protection and serious active treatment. Without such help, they drift back to precisely the place Dorothea Dix found them 150 years ago.. The zeal for this sex-change surgery-perhaps, with the exception of frontal lobotomy, the most radical therapy ever encouraged by twentieth-century psychiatrists--did not derive from critical reasoning or thoughtful assessments.. 1692, several [Salem MA] young women and girls who had for some weeks been secretly listening to tales of spells, voodoo, and illicit cultic practices from a Barbados slave suddenly displayed a set of mystifying mental and behavioral changes.. The modern diagnosis for these young women is, of course, hysteria not bewitchment.. another example of misidentified hysterical behavior has surfaced and again has been bolstered by an invented view of its cause that fits a cultural fashion. This condition is "multiple personality disorder".. subtle actions of several alternative personalities, or "alters," co-existing in the patient's mental life.. Forgotten sexual mistreatment in childhood is the most frequently proffered explanation of MPD.. dissociating blockade itself--again according to the theory--destroys the integration of mind and evokes multiple personalities as separate, disconnected, sequestered, "alternative" collections of thought, memory, and feeling.. supposedly forgotten abuse is finally "remembered" after months of "uncovering" therapy, during which long conversations by the therapist with "alter" personalities take place.. The helpful clinical approach to the patient with putative MPD, as with any instance of hysterical display, is to direct attention away from the behavior--one simply never talks to an "alter." Within a few days of a consistent therapeutic emphasis away from the MPD behavior, it fades and generally useful psychotherapy on the presenting true problems begins. #@# Wenger, EInstein Factor, 3river, 1996 p293 Figure 15.1 [Genius Meme, each item a DNA crosslink] Primitive Drive: Strong appetite for food, sex, and other survival needs. Thin Boundaries: Moves easily between conscious, unconscious, and sensory realms. Original Observer: Fearless, unconventional thinking. Unswayed by general opinion. Autotelic Discipline: Enjoys learning and study as a form of recreation. Strong Left Brain: Acute analytical skills. Able to translate insights into language and math. Noble Spirit: Strong moral and spiritual purpose. #@# A Positive Psychological Theory of Judging in Hindsight Spring, 1998 65 U. Chi. L. Rev. 571 Jeffrey J. Rachlinski Beginning with the work of Baruch Fischhoff, psychologists have demonstrated repeatedly that people overstate the predictability of past events --a phenomenon that psychologists have termed the "hindsight bias." . Virtually every study on judging in hindsight has concluded that events seem more predictable than they actually are.[OrgBeh&HumDecProc 46 20, 25-31 (1990) & 57 247, 249-51 (1994) &al].. Courts' ex post judgments of ex ante decisions fall into three categories: (1) judgments under objective ("should have known") standards; (2) judgments under subjective ("did know") standards; and (3) judgments of what was foreseeable.. The business judgment rule arises from the concern that even a good decision can produce an undesirable result and can be judged unfairly in hindsight. "Courts recognize that even disinterested, well-intentioned, informed directors can make decisions that, in hindsight, were improvident." [ Washington Bancorp v Said, 812 F Supp 1256, 1267-68 (D DC 1993)].. The business judgment rule and subsequent remedial measures rules, for example, make a great deal of sense as a response to hindsight bias. n237 As for the law and psychology tradition, a close look at the legal system's response to the bias suggests that the law is well-equipped to address the cognitive limitations of judges and juries. Although an understanding of cognitive biases may reveal patterns in the case law, not every bias needs a new reform. The law might have figured it out all on its own. #@# Matching Probabilities: The Behavioral Law and Economics of Repeated Behavior Fall, 2005 72 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1197 Ehud Guttel & Alon Harel Individuals often repeatedly face a choice of whether to obey a particular legal rule.. individuals tend to decide suboptimally. Rather than maximizing their payoff, individuals under such circumstances often follow the strategy of "probability matching.".. It also suggests that probability matching may provide a new rationale for the prevalent use of "escalating sanctions," both in tort and in criminal law.. Probability matching can be defined as the tendency to adopt a mixed strategy dictated by the relative frequency of events, even when the utility-maximizing strategy would be to always behave in a way that presupposes that the most probable event would occur.. participants do not simply make decisions as if each game is independent. Instead, their guesses are guided by the ratio of relevant probabilities.. Although suboptimal in some contexts, scholars have shown that, in other contexts, probability matching is an optimizing strategy.. Studies involving probabilistic outcomes have shown that individuals search for patterns even when such patterns are manifestly absent.. Using insights from game theory, it has been shown that opting for the less frequent event can be rational in competitive environments with multiple agents. Because it is expected that most participants will choose the more frequent event, this payoff will be distributed among many. In contrast, choosing the less frequent event promises the decisionmaker the whole payoff, undivided, when it materializes.. Supreme Court has had two opportunities to address the conditions for the imposition of punitive damages, and both cases highlighted the relevance of a prior "pattern of misconduct" as a relevant consideration.. Imposing substantial punitive damages on repeat tortfeasors serves to counterbalance the effect caused by probability matching. Because the expected costs become very high, such defendants will avoid the activity.. Probability matching may also require adjustment in the level of the criminal sanctions imposed on recidivist offenders.. Escalating penalties serve, therefore, the purpose of deterring both one-time offenders and probability matchers at the lowest possible cost. The legal system applies a price discriminating mechanism under which severe (and expensive) sanctions are reserved only for individuals that cannot be deterred by moderate penalties.. People faced with a series of decisions involving repeated choices with probabilistic costs or benefits often change their behavior despite no apparent alterations in their preferences or environments.. First, to avoid inefficiencies resulting from probability matching, ex ante investment in law enforcement should be adjusted to take probability matching into account. Second, the legal system can implement a regime of ex post escalating sanctions and thereby differentiate between agents who repeatedly engage in a certain behavior and agents who engage in it only occasionally. These two methods manipulate incentives in order to adjust for probability matching. Third, the legal system may also avoid the conditions under which probability matching can occur. By using a risk-based rather than a harm-based liability scheme, the legal system minimizes the probabilistic nature of legal sanctions and induces individuals to behave as maximizers.. Probability matching indicates that individuals who face repeated choices regarding socially desirable activities may take risks that are too small.. Providing subsidies to those who repeatedly engage in such projects may, under these circumstances, be efficient. Second, the probabilistic nature of the payoff may be minimized. This may be achieved by promising the individual a consistent reward for her efforts. #@# 48 Laws of Power, Rbt Greene & Elffers 1998 Viking 0670881465 p1 Law 1. Never Outshine the Master. Always make those above you feel comfortably superior.. do not go too far in displaying your talents or you might accomplish the opposite - inspire fear and insecurity.. p8 Law 2. Never put too Much Trust in Friends, Learn how to use Enemies. Be wary of friends - they will betray you more quickly, for they are easily aroused to envy. They also become spoiled and tyrannical. But hire a former enemy and he will be more loyal than a friend, because he has more to prove.. p13 Without enemies around us, we grow lazy p16 Law 3. Conceal your Intentions.. If they have no clue what you are up to, they cannot prepare a defense. Guide them far enough down the wrong path..intentions, it will be too late.. p31 Law 4. Always Say Less than Necessary.. the more you say, the more common you appear.. more likely you are to say something foolish.. p37 Law 5. So Much Depends on Reputation - Guard it with your Life.. once you slip, however, you are vulnerable.. learn to destroy your enemies by opening holes in their own reputations.. p44 Law 6. Court Attention at all Cost. Be conspicuous, at all cost.. more colorful, more mysterious.. p51 People are enthralled by mystery; because it invites constant interpretation, they never tire of it. The mysterious cannot be grasped. And what cannot be seized and consumed creates power p56 Law 7. Get others to do the Work for you, but Always Take the Credit.. valuable time and energy.. aura of efficiency and speed.. Never do yourself what others can do for you.. p62 Law 8. Make other People come to you - use Bait if Necessary.. you are the one in control.. better to make your opponent come to you, abandoning his own plans.. p69 Law 9. Win through your Actions, Never through Argument.. resentment and ill will you stir up is stronger and lasts longer than any momentary change of opinion.. Demonstrate, do not explicate.. p74 When caught in a lie, the more emotional and certain you appear, the less likely it seems that you are lying p76 Law 10. Infection: Avoid the Unhappy and Unlucky.. emotional states are as infectious as disease.. draw misfortune on themselves.. p82 Law 11. Learn to Keep People Dependent on You.. Never teach them enough so that they can do without you.. p89 Law 12. Use Selective Honesty and Generosity to Disarm your Victim.. gestures of honesty and generosity bring down the guard of even the most suspicious people.. Trojan horse.. p95 Law 13. When Asking for Help, Appeal to People's Self-Interest, Never to their Mercy or Gratitude.. do not bother to remind him of your past assistance and good deeds. He will find a way to ignore you... benefit him, and emphasize it out of all proportion.. p101 Law 14. Pose as a Friend, Work as a Spy.. information that will keep you a step ahead.. In polite social encounters, learn to probe. Ask indirect questions to get people to reveal their weaknesses and intentions.. p107 Law 15. Crush your Enemy Totally.. If one ember is left alight, no matter how dimly it smolders, a fire will eventually break out.. enemy will recover, and will seek revenge. Crush him, not only in body but in spirit.. p115 Law 16. Use Absence to Increase Respect and Honor.. more you are seen and heard from, the more common you appear. If you are already established in a group, temporary withdrawal from it will make you more talked about, even more admired. You must learn when to leave. Create value through scarcity. p123 Law 17. Keep Others in Suspended Terror: Cultivate an Air of Unpredictability.. predictability gives them a sense of control.. keep them off-balance, and they will wear themselves out trying to explain your moves.. strategy can intimidate and terrorize.. p129 Sometimes predictability can work in your favor.. lull them to sleep p130 Law 18. Do Not Build Fortresses to Protect Yourself - Isolation is Dangerous.. isolation exposes you to more dangers than it protects you from - it cuts you off from valuable information.. shielded from your enemies by the crowd.. p137 Law 19. Know Who You're Dealing with - Do Not Offend the Wrong Person.. never assume that everyone will react to your strategies in the same way. Deceive or outmaneuver some people and they will spend the rest of their lives seeking revenge.. never offend or deceive the wrong person.. p138-9 [Narcissistic?] Arrogant and proud.. very dangerous.. oversensitive and overactive pride, flee. Whatever you are hoping from him isn't worth.. [?] Hopelessly Insecure Man.. disappear for a long time. Do not stay around him of he will nibble you to death.. [Paranoid?] Suspicion.. Play on his suspicious nature to get him to turn on other people.. [Sadistic?] Long Memory.. calculate and wait.. coldblooded shrewdness.. cold and unaffectionate.. crush him completely or get him out of your sight.. [Obsessive?] Plain, Unassuming.. not take the bait because he does not recognize [value] it.. waste your time, energy, resources p145 Law 20. Do Not Commit to Anyone.. fool who always rushes to take sides.. playing people against one another, making them pursue you.. p156 Law 21. Play a Sucker to Catch a Sucker - Seem Dumber than your Mark.. make your victims feel smart.. they will never suspect that you may have ulterior motives.. p159 The feeking that someone else is more intelligent than we are is almost intolerable. We usually try to justify it in different ways: "He only has book knowlegde, whereas I have real knowledge." "Her parents paid for her to get a good education. If my parents had had as much money, if I had been as privileged..." "He's not as smart as he thinks." Last but not least: "She may know her narrow field better than I do, but beyond that she's not really smart at all. Even Einstein was a boob outside physics." p163 Law 22. Use the Surrender Tactic: Transform Weakness into Power. When you are weaker, never fight for honor's sake.. Surrender gives you time to recover, time to torment and irritate your conqueror, time to wait for his power to wane. Do not give him the satisfaction of fighting and defeating you.. By turning the other check you infuriate and unsettle him.. p171 Law 23. Concentrate Your Forces.. concentrated at their strongest point.. p178 Law 24. Play the Perfect Courtier .. indirection; he flatters, yields to superiors, and asserts power over others in the mot oblique and graceful manner.. pp180-2 Nonchalance. Never seem to be working too hard.. flow naturally.. Be Frugal with Flattery.. Arrange to Be Noticed.. Alter Your Style and Language According to the Person You are Dealing With.. Never Be the Bearer of Bad News.. Never Affect Friendliness and Intimacy with Your Mast.. he wants a subordinate.. Never Criticize Those Above Your Directly.. Be Frugal in Asking Those Above You for Favors.. Never Joke ABout Appearances or Taste.. Do Not Be the Court Cynoc.. criticism will rub of fon you.. Be Self-observant.. training your mind to try to see yourself as others see you.. Master Your Emotions.. learn to cry and laugh on command.. disguise your anger and frustration and to fake your contentment.. Fit the Spirit [Fashion] of the Times.. Be a Source of Pleasue.. control your unpleasant qualities and obscure them when necessary p191 Law 25. Re-Create Yourself.. Do not accept the roles.. master of your own image rather than letting others define if for you. Incorporate dramatic devices into your public gestures and actions.. p197 theatrical timing to surprise and divert.. staging political events in a particular order and rhythm p200 Law 26. Keep Your Hands Clean.. never soiled by mistakes and nasty deeds.. using others as scapegoats and cat's-paws to disguise your involvement.. p204 wise to choose the most innocent victim possible aas a sacrificial goat. Such people will not be powerful enough to fight you, and their naive protests may be seen as protesting too much - may be seen, in other words, as a sign of their guilt. Be careful, however, not to create a martyr. It is important that you remain the victim, the poor leader betrayed p210 favor done indirectly and elegantly has ten times more power p211 Search out ways to make yourself the cat's-paw, indirectly extricating your friends from distress without imposing yourself or making them feel obligated to you p215 Law 27. Play on People's Need to Believe to Create a Cultlike Following. People have an overwhelming desire to believe.. Keep your words vague but full of promise; emphasize enthusiasm over rationality and clear thinking. Give your new disciples rituals to perform, ask them to make sacrifices on your behalf.. p217 Keep It Simple.. promise of something great and transformative, and on the other a total vaguenes.. Emphasize the Visual and the Sensual over the Intellectual.. You need to amuse the bored, then, and ward off the cynics.. Create rituals for your followers; organize them into a hierarchy.. Disguise Your SOurce of Income.. come from the truth of your methods.. To keep your followers united.. create an us-versus-them dynamic.. make sure your followers believe they are part of an exclusive club, unified by a bond of common goals. Then, to strengthen this bond, manufacture the notion of a devious enemy out to ruin you.. followers will tighten and cohere. They have your cause to believe in and infidels to destroy p227 Law 28. Enter Action with Boldness. If you are unsure of a course of action, do not attempt it. Your doubts and hesitations will infect your execution.. Any mistakes you commit through audacity are easily corrected with more audacity. Everyone admires the bold; no one honors the timid.. p228 Lions Circle the Hesitant.. Hesitation Creates Gaps, Boldness Obliterates them p233 The moment the seducer hesitates, the charm is broken, because we become aware of the process, of their deliberate effort to seduce us, of their self-consciousness. Boldness directs attention outward and keeps the illusion alive. It never induces awkwardness or embarrassment.. Few are born bold.. You must practice and develop your boldness p235 To go through life armed only with audacity would be tiring and also fatal.. Timidity has no place in the realm of power; you will often benefit, however, by beign able to feign it. At that point, of course, it is no longer timidity but an offensive weapon: You are luring people in with your show of shyness, all the better to pounce on them boldly later p236 Law 29. Plan All the Way to the End.. The ending is everything.. all the possible consequences, obstacles, and twists of fortune that might reverse your hard work and give the glory to others. By planning to the end you will not be overwhelmed by circumstances and you will know when to stop.. p244 If you are locked into a plan too rigidly, you will be unable to deal with sudden shifts of fortune.. must build in alternatives.. Most people, however, lose less from overplanning and rigidity than frm vagueness and a tendency to improvise constantly in the face of circumstance.. Only having a clear objective and a far-reaching plan allows you that freedom p245 Law 30. Make your Accomplishments Seem Effortless.. All the toil and practice that go into them, and also all the clever tricks, must be concealed.. Avoid the temptation of revealing how hard you work - it only raises questions. Teach no one your tricks or they will be used against you.. p254 Law 31. Control the Options: Get Others to Play with the Cards you Deal best deceptions are the ones that seem to give the other person a choice.. Give people options that come out in your favor whichever one they choose.. p258 This unwillingness to probe the smallness of our choices stems from the fact that too much freedom creates a kind of anxiety pp259-61 Color the Choices.. one he preferred always seemed to be the best.. Force the Resister.. Push them to "choose" what you want them to do by appearing to advocate the opposite.. Alter the Playing Field.. reminede them of their dependence on the rails. Refusing them shipping, or simply raising their fees, could ruin their business. Rockefeller altered the playing field so that the only options the small oil producers had were the ones he gave them.. Shrinking Options.. better grab what he was showing them, because tomorrow they would have to settle for something worse, perhaps at even higher prices.. use on the chronically indecisive.. Weak Man on the Precipice..He would describe all sorts of dangers, exaggerating them as much as possible, until the duke saw a yawning abyss in every direction except one: the one Retz was pushing him to take.. use fear and terror to propel them into action.. implicate in your deceptions the very person who can do you the most harm.. buy their silence.. Horns of a Dilemma.. lawyer leads the witness to decide between two possible explanations of an event, both of which poke a hole in their story.. Deny the victim time to think of an escape p263 Law 32. Play to People's Fantasies.. Never appeal to truth and reality unless you are prepared for the anger that comes for disenchantment. Life is so harsh and distressing that people who can manufacture romance.. tapping into the fantasies of the masses.. p271 Law 33. Discover Each Man's Thumbscrew.. insecurity, an uncontrollable emotion or need.. pp272-3 Pay attention to gestures and unconscious signals.. revealed by seemingly unimportant gestures and passing words.. should seem to come from the heart. This will usually elicit a resonse that is not only as frank as yours but more genuine - a response that reveals a weakness.. FInd the Helpless Child. Most weaknesses begin in childhood.. grows older, the indulgence or the deficiency may be buried but never disappears.. Look for Contrasts. An overt trail that conceals its opposite.. Find the Weak Link.. Find the one person who will bend under pressure. Fille the Void.. insecurity and unhappiness.. Feed on Uncontrollable Emotions.. fear.. lust, greed, vanity, or hatred p281 You may stir up an action you cannot control.. Push timid people into bold action and they may go too far; answer their need for attention or recognition and they may need more that you want to give them p282 Law 34. Be Royal in your Own Fashion: Act like a King to be treated like one.. appearing vulgar or common will make people disrespect you.. p287 As children we start our lives with great exuberance, expecting and demanding everything.. expect less.. limitations that are really self-imposed.. If we start to believe we are destined for great things, our belief will radiate outward.. believing so firmly in their greatness that it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy p291 Law 35. Master the Art of Timing.. hurrying betrays a lack of control over.. patient, as if you know that everything will come to you eventually. Become a detective of the right moment.. stand back when the time is not yet ripe, and to strike fiercely when it has reached fruition.. p295-9 inner turmoil caused by our emotions tends to make time move faster, it follows that once we control our emotional responses to events, time will move much more slowly.. When you force the pace out of fear and impatience, you create a nest of problems that require fixing, and you end up taking much longer than if you has taken your time.. As time passes it will eventually prsent opportunities you had not imagines. Waiting involves controlling not only your own emotions but those of your colleagues, who, mistaking action for power, may try to push you into making rash moves.. Trick in forcing time is to upset the timing of others - to make them hurry, to make them wait, to make them abandon their own pace, to distort their perception of time.. Your mastery of timing can really only be judged by how you work with end time - how you quickly change the pace and bring things to a swift and definitive conclusion p300 Law 36. Disdain Things you cannot have: Ignoring them is the best Revenge.. The less interest you reveal, the more superior you seem.. p309 Law 37. Create Compelling Spectacles.. Dazzled by appearances, no one will notice what you are really doing.. p313 The visual, on the other hand, short-circuits the labyrinth of words. It strikes with an emotional power and immediacy that leaves no gaps for reflection and doubt. Like music, it leaps right over rational, reasonable thoughts.. Words put you on the defensive. If you have to explain yourself your power is already in question. The image, on th eother hand, impoes itself as given. It discourages questions, creates forceful associations, resists unintended unterpretations, communicates instantly, and forges bonds that transcend social differences. Words stir up arguments and divisions; images bring people together p317 Law 38. Think as you like but Behave like others.. If you make a show of going against the times, flaunting your unconventional ideas and unorthodox ways, people will think that you only want attention and that you look down upon them. They will find a way to punish you for making them feel inferior p321 Martyrdom serves no purpose - better to live on in an oppressive world, even to thrive in it. Meanwhile, find a way to express your ideas subtly for those who understand you. Laying your pearls before swine will only bring you trouble.. We all tell lies and hide our true feelings, for complete free expression is a social impossibility. From an early age we learn to conceal our thoughts, telling the prickly and insecure what we know they want to hear, watching carefully lest we offend them. For most of us this is natural - there are ideas and values that most people accept, and it is pointless to argue. We believe what we want to, then, but on the outside we wear a mask p325 Law 39. Stir up Waters to Catch Fish.. if you can make your enemies angry while staying calm yourself, you gain a decided advantage. Put your enemies off-balance: Find the chink in their vanity through which you can rattle them and you hold the strings.. p329 Petulence is not power, it is a sign of helplessness. People may temporarily be cowed by your tantrums, but in the end, they lose respect for you.. easily undermine a person with so little self-control.. repression drains us of energy.. nothing in the social realm, as in the game of power, is personal.. Our anger also has roots in the many interactions with others, the accumulated disappointments and heartaches p333 Law 40. Despise the Free Lunch .. usually involves either a trick or a hidden obligation. What has worth is worth paying for. By paying your own way you stay clear of gratitude, guilt, and deceit.. no cutting corners with excellence. Be lavish with your money and keep it circulating, for generosity is a sign and a magnet for power.. p334-5 Greedy fish are the con artist's bread and butter.. contagious: Unless you resist them they will infect you with the insecure feeling that you should have looked harder to find a cheaper price. Don't argue with them or try to change them. Just mentally add up the cost, in time and inner peace if not hidden financial expense, of th eirrational pursuit of a bargain.. Sadists seem to think that paying for something gives them the right to torture and abuse the seller.. Indiscriminate Giver.. want to be loved and admireed.. If they give to one and all, why should the recepient feel special? p347 Law 41. Avoid Stepping into a Great Man's Shoes .. will have to accomplish double their achievements to outshine them. Do not get lost in their shadow.. changing course.. disparage his legacy, and gain power by shining in your own way.. p366 plentitude and prosperity tend to make us lazy and inactive: When our power is secure we have no need to act. This is a serious danger, especially for those who achieve success and power at an early age.. How often our early triumphs turn u sinto a kind of caricature of ourselves p358 Law 42. Strike the Shepherd and the Sheep will Scatter.. stirrer, the arrogant underling, the poisoned of goodwill.. they are irredeemable. Neutralize their influence by isolating or banishing them.. p367 Law 43. Work on the Hearts and Minds of Others.. Coercion creates a reaction that will eventually work against you.. seduced becomes your loyal pawn.. Soften up the resistant by working on their emotions, playing on what they hold dear and what they fear. Ignore the hearts and minds of others and they will grow to hate you.. p373 Shaking them to the core, he softened their hearts. Play on contrasts like this: Push people to despair, then give them relief. If they expect pain and you give them pleasure, you win their hearts p376 Law 44. Disarm and Infuriate with the Mirror Effect.. mirror your enemies, doing exactly as they do, they cannot figure out your strategy. The Mirror Effect mocks and humiliates them, making them overreact.. illusion that you share their values; by holding up a mirror to their actions, you teach them a lesson.. p377-8 Neutralizing Effect.. following their actions as best you can, and they cannot see what you are up to.. Narcissus Effect.. simply the ability to mimic anothe rperson not physically, but psychologically, and it is immensely powerful because it plays upon the unsatisfied self-love of a child.. Moral Effect.. demonstrate your ideas through action.. give them a tatse of their own medicine p392 Law 45. Preach the Need for Change, but Never Reform too much at Once.. day-to-day level people are creatures of habit. Too much innovation is traumatic.. make a show of respecting the old way of doing things. If change is necessary, make it feel like a gentle improvement on the past.. p397 The fact that the past is dead and buried gives you the freedom to reinterpret it p400 Law 46. Never appear too Perfect.. Envy creates silent enemies.. admit to harmless vices, in order to deflect envy.. p406 He did not see that he had not only made no attempt to disguise the degree of his skills and qualities, he had imposed them on one and all, making a show of his versatility, thinking it impressed people and won him friends. In fact it made him silent enemies, people who felt inferior to him and did all they could to ruin him the moment he tripped up or made the slightest mistake p407 People cannot envy the power that they themselves have given a person who does not seem to desire it p410 Law 47. Do not go Past the Mark you Aimed for; In Victory, Learn when to Stop.. heat of victory, arrogance and overconfidence can push you past the goal you had aimed for.. Do not allow success to go to your head.. p415 success tends to go to your head and make you emotional. Feeling invulnerable, you make aggressive moves that ultimately undo the victory you have gained.. powerful vary their rhythms and patterns, change course, adapt to circumstance, and learn to improovise.. steady themselves, give themselves the space to reflect on what has happened, examine the role of circumstance and luck in their success p419 Law 48. Assume Formlessness.. shape, by having a visible plan, you open yourself to attack.. adaptable and on the move. Accept the fact that nothing is certain and no law is fixed. The best way to protect yourself is to be as fluid and formless as water; never bet on stability or lasting order. Everything changes.. #@# Every Move Must Have a Purpose (biz/chess)Pandolfini 2003 Hyperion p17 your instincts are based on what tou don't know you already do p23 make your plans small and adaptable. Then you can find your way home however the wind is blowing p25 Nothing should be played without first considering what the opponent has just done p37 You can't save the pieces you've already lost p44 Upping the ante [offense v defense] in the business world offers more than a hypothetical advantage. It bestows a pragmatic one as well. Entrepreneurial spirit relies on the willingness to attain, keep, and build the initiative. And it's not really that hard to do, to gain command. It's just a matter of tapping the active player inside you - right from the start. When responging, make sure you go first p50 No business can be run effectively if its players spend their energies merely protecting what they have [Carnegie v inheritance; Christ v warehouses] p64 Companies that don't watch over their resources - intellectual or material - can't secure their investment. Overextend your supply lines, and you can lose your business p65 Practically every situation has hidden value for the opportunist p76 accept the good buy of losing now for discovering how to win later.. worst mistakes are those yo think you haven't made p81 you shouldn't even try unless logic and experience suggest that the chance you're taking is small and you're likely to gain in the end p88 If you want success, value dedication over dazzle, the sure thing over pie in the sky p94 To spot unique opportunity, you must discover before you analyze. That means thinking flexibly and interpreting rules creatively p101 When you're losing, you're going to go down unless you fight back. You can't just acquiesce. That simply doesn't work. To get the most, you have to give the most. You have to reach beyon, and then beyond that. And that's just the start. You never ge tmore than you settle for. #@# Graber, All In, Harper COllins 2005 [Poker & Biz - compare to Game Theory] p96 NEVER lose control of your emotions p111 Conceal the true strength of your strongest hands p172 It's not the worst hands or the best hands you ever have to be wary of -it's the GOOD hands. Pay extra attention to the good hands - never assume you have the winning hand p194 Play small suited connectors to win the big pots, risk only the small ones, and keep everyone around you guessing. The small suited connector is one of the great secrets of success in business and in poker p210 To succeed in business you need the courage to go all in at least a handful of time in your career. If you go all in with wisdom and with patience - at the right time and for the right reasons - you will find there is no limit to what you can achieve #@# Miller, Game THeory at Work, MGH 2003 p60 Fear only credible threats. Being perceived as irrational can be advantageous p61 Worry about your own payoff, not your opponent's.. ignore sunk costs p49 Firms have trouble profiting when they compete on price because price is very visible to consumers. To stop your rival from undercutting your price, your rival needs to believe that you will quickly respond to any price reduction.. Complex pricing can reduce price competition p83 You should be open, honest, and trusting in coordination [can't act simult] games. A small amount of doubt can make it impossible for two parties to trust each other. It's useless to negotiate in outguessing games. In chicken games perception is reality, so you must do everything to convince your opponent that you are committed to the macho course p99 Massive coordination games are often winner-take-all affairs. To win a massive coordination game, it's often more important to be perceived as popular [monop] than good. When playing a massive coordination game it's a sound strategy to buy early popularity by selling your product at a loss p113 A Nash equilibrium is an outcome where no player regrets his move given his opponent's strategy.. When trying to move to a new equillibrium, you should consider if the new outcome would be a Nash equilibrium. If it's not, then your new outcome is unstable and might be difficult to answer p147 Perhaps you should even give all of your business to the supplier who appears to be charging the most. THe other suppliers might then become convinced that they ar ebeing taken.. creating chaos you can multiply the mistrust the suppliers have toward each other and perhaps cause them to betray their competitors by decreasing prices p150 In a prisoner's dilemma game, competition will harm both players. The players would be better off if they worked together, but if the game is played only one time, then self-interest will always force them into ruinous competition. In a repeated prisoners' dilemma game, the players might be able to work together to achieve a good outcome. Hidden actions, short time horizons, and lastperiod problems might still make cooperation impossible, however. If your suppliers are charging you high prices, you could benefit from creating a prisoners' dilemma p161 Adverse selection occurs when you attract those with whom you least want to interact.. Playing hard to get can overcome adverse selection by convincing others that you are not desperate and thus not undesirable. Adverse selection is caused by hidden information and so can be remedied by information acquisition p181 Book covers, college degrees, and brand names can be quick ways of signaling quality. When aplayer can't lie, he also can't stay silent, for the sound of silence can be deafening p182 Placing people under pressure might cause them to be too honest for their own good [because don't have time to calculate]. Lines [queues] can provide useful information about others' beliefs and intentions. Options can help solve [simultaneous] "chicken and egg" - like coordination problems. You should take more risks if you have an implicit option [if x sells to me too, then I'll buy y] p206 Holdup problems manifest themselves when you become artificially dependent on one person or organization to perform a task. Holdup problems can be mitigated by long-term contracts or second sourcing. Employees should be wary of developing skills that are highly company specific p221 An employee spending her company's money has an incentive to spend money in a way that beenfits her, not her company. Bribing those who spend other people's money can be a cheap way to make sales.. To combat the negative incentive that insurance creates, insurance providers need to monitor, regulate,and carefully screen their customers. The people who most desire insurance are those to whom the insurance company would least like to sell p239 Employees will always strive to maximize their own welfare, not yours. Paying employees based on their achievememnts maximizes their incentive to work but forces employees to take on lots of risk. Ideally you should compensate employees based on effort, not outcome; but effort is much harder to measure than achievememnt. Paying employees based on the performance of a large group creates incentives for workers to free ride on the efforts of others. Two people, or countries, can benefit from trade even if one is better at everything than th eother p247 What you would get if negotiations fail often determines what yo do get if negotitations succeed. A party who can make a take-it-or-leave-it can get the entire surplus from a transaction p248 Bringing other parties [participants] to your negotiations can radically alter the bargaining environment. Giving up control [to bad cop] can enhance your negotiating posiition. Taking negotiations to the brink of failure can make credible a threat to do something that is not in your self-interest p256 Auctions are useful for sellers because they automatically adjust the price based upon buyer interest. Auctions are most advantageous to those selling time-limited goods or services. In first price sealed bid auctions, you should always bid less that what the good is worth to you. In honest second price [highest pays what next highest offered] sealed-bid auctions, if you know exactly how much the good is worth to you, then you should bid this amount. If you are not sure of the good's value, you should beware of the winner's curse, which holds that the winning buyer is often the buyer who most overvalued the good. Auctions can be used to allocate tasks among employees [eg have them pay for new territory] p264 If someone freely gives you stock advice, ask why she can't get anyone to pay them for the information. Events affect stock prices when they are anticipated, not when they actually occur. EVen short-term traders nned to be concerned with the long-term prospects of stocks. To compensate investors for taking on risk, market forces cause stocks on average to pay higher returns than safe governement bonds. Survivorship bias makes mutual funds' past performances seem highly misleadingly impressive. #@# Adcock Greek Art War1957 UCal 0-520-0005-6 p2 But the Epic tradition did not provide them with an art of war; it provided them with a panorama of protagonists. In their own day war had become something far different: it meant the uniting of the armed men of the community to fight shoulder to shoulder, with an orderly, integrated valour. p4 not the constant occupation or preoccupation of the Greeks.. No form of combat could so plainly exhibit the community solidarity that was the essence of the Greek city-state. It was not the place for single-handed exploits, for the EPic aristeia of champions. The desire for personal distinction must be subordinate: it must find its satisfaction elsewhere, as in the great athletic festivals p7 battle was, as it were, a "mass duel," a trial of strength; and the verdict of the trial was accepted p10 Greeks in general had not, by instinct or training, the discipline that was the chief ingredient in Roman soldiership p12 Athenian general Miltiades could claim high credit for the victory of Marathon.. for his discernment that a moment had come when, for whatever reasons, he could take the Persians at a disadvantage p27 gap was opened in their line and into this Alexander charged. At the same moment Philip caused the phalanx to stop withdrawing and attack, and the battle was over. He had by his skillful use of the phalanx created, as it were, a flank where no flank had been. And he achieved what Napoleon said was one of the most difficult manoeuvres in battle, the going over from defence to attack with great speed and force at the right moment p34 This was the breaking through an enemy line by rowing two opposing ships and then wheeling round to take one or other of them at a disadvantage before it could manoeuvre to meet this attack. This manoeuvre plainly called for high speed and even more important, brilliant steering promptly supported by skillful oarsmanship. It was therefore, above all, the tactical device of highly trained crews in ships of the most skillful construction. A variant of this manoeuvre was to make the attacking trieme swerve so that its projecting bulkheads might sweep away the oars on one side of an opposing ship, while, just before impact, the oarage of the near sid eof the attacking ship wa drawn inwards out of harm's way p41 Thucydides onwards the truth was proclaimed that in war there is, and must be, a large element of the unexpected. It may be that ancient generals and admirals feared this as an enemy rather than sought to use it as a friend and ally. But there is a strategy which depends on the ue of fleets and their power of moving troops quickly and quietly. p51 Alexander possessed in an eminent degree. His greatness was shown by his swift decision when and where to strike p60 catapults could outrange all nonmechanical missile.. to keep down losses, what really destroyed the defences of cities was the battering ram, the sap, and the mine, or the tall siege towers p69 Aetolians used against hoplites was to allow them to advance and then to attack the with light-armed [bow & arrow] troops when they were far p76 Xenophon writes, "Wise generalship consists in attacking when the enemy is weakest, even if the point may be distant.. If you attack expecting to prevail, do it in full strength, because a suprlus of victory never caused any conqueror one pang of remorse" [Hipparch 4,4,24; 7,11] p87 character plays in generalship, and it may outweigh talent and technique. The whole career of Timoleon was a triumph of character, perhaps the highest to be found in the history of the Greek city-state.. resolute man who could resourcefully inspire his soldiers, and could turn a chance omen to good account #@# 3 Byz Mil Treatises CFHB XXV Dennis IX 1985 Dumbarton Anon 6cent p13 Deliberative assemblies serve a good purpose. What has been thought through by a number of people is more likely to be carrie dout successfully. They are particularly needed in time of war, which is declared by the consensus of many minds but can be conducted effectively only by selected leaders p51 It should be understood that the purpose of this division of the army and the assignment of so many officers is to facilitate the execution of orders. For it is difficult to maneuver the entire force by a single word of command #@# Handel, Masters of War, 2001, 3ed, frankcass.com 0-7146-8132-6 p11 Weinberger Doctrine.. vital interests.. sufficient force.. objectives must be clealry defined.. keep cause and response in synchronization.. public opinion.. last resort p27 "talent and genius operate outside the rules, and theory conflicts with practice" (Clausewitz, On War, p140) p45 In today's high-tech wars, theory almost inevitably precedes reality and experience because technological innovation.. widens the gap between theory and practice, generating increasingly unrealistic theories or doctrines of war p53 Finding and attacking the most critical point in the enemy's position is another problem that inevitably occupies every strategist p69 In an age when real-time communications did not exist, the need to make quick decisions, exlpoit opportunities or avoid defeat often cause local military developments to overrule remote political control.. Like politics, command on the battlefield is the art of the possible which requires the exploitation of fleeting opportunities or the avoidance of imminent disaster.. The neagative consequences of Hitler's interference with Rommel's decisions or in the battle of Stalingrad, for example, are well known. Another famous yet possibly apocryphal example was President Carter's direct intervention in the aborted raid on Iran. Accordingly, both Sun Tzu and Clausewitz recognize that, in exceptional circumstances, the military commander in the field must overrule political orders p79 Both Sun Tzu and Clausewitz view war as an essentially rational activity involving the careful and continuous correlation of ends and means. At the same time, they are fully aware of the crucial effect of non-rational factors such as morale, motivation, and intuition. Clausewitz, however, appears to be more conscious of the difficulty of relying on rational calculation. As a result, he assigns a greater role to the unpredictable influence of elements such as friction, chance, unreliable intelligence, and sheer complexity p83 Today, as much as in Clausewitz's time, there are still those who think that new and better theories of war can minimize the costs of waging war to the point where fighting and bloodshed will become unnecessary. This reflects the lack of realism bolstered by wishful thinking. If anything, the rols of moral factors has actually expanded in modern warfare (eg, the influence of real-time mass media on public opinion) p95 perceiving the nature of a war is a reciprocal and dialectical process in which it is important to consider how one side's perspective and actions affect the other side's actions and reactions.. true nature of war can only be better understood after the war has begun, when it is defined by a complicated series of interatctions between warring parties.. initial predictions must be revised continuously.. must remain flexible enough p102 "trinity - composed of primordial violence, hatred, and enmity, which are to be regarded as a blind natural force [people]; of the play of chance and probability within which the creative spirit is free to roam [mil]; and of it element of subordination, as instrument of policy, which makes it subject to reason alone [govt]" (Clausewitz, On War, p89) p113 The process of thinking, planning, and searching for a comparitive advantage - not an impulsive rush to engage the enemy - lays the groundwork for victory p129 Machiavelli argues that the city-state in which the people are unwilling to fight for their own interests is less likely to succeed in the long run p139 Among the force multipliers recommended by Sun Tzu are maneuver; reliance on intelligence; the extensive use of deception and diverionary measures achieve surprise; the 'indirect approach'; and the use of psychological means to undermine the enemy's will to fight p153 The weakness if Sun Tzu's appraoch lies in its implication that war can somehow be turned into a non-lethal intellectual exercise in which cunning and intelligence are central. On the ither hand, an erroneous interpretation of clausewitz's emphasis on force and the principle of destruction can cause force to be wielded too readily, without the careful consideration of non-military means; this would only make war more costly than necessary. But the choice need not be between either approach when an intelligent combination of both produces the proper balance p159 Clausewitz stresses the 'positive' approach of maximum concentration of one's own forces, but is less concerned with the enemy. Sun Tzu is chiefly concerned with the 'negative' approach of preventing the enemy from concentrating his troops through reliance in strategems that divide and disperse his forces. This leads Sun Tzu to a much greater appreciation of deception and diversion in war p171 Theoretically, the principle of continuity must be seen as the nexus of the three cases of interaction - (1) the maximum use of force, (2) the objective of disarming the enemy, and (3) the maximum exertion of strength - all of which to an extreme, to escalation, and in fact to non-stop war p175 Clausewitz asserts that even if the attacker has the advantage, the dearth of accurate intellignce will cause him to be either unaware of it or unsure that it is enough to defeat his enemy p176 Clausewitz to the subject of human nature - this time to the fact that in a world dominated so much by chance - courage, daring, boldness, and trust in one's luck are essential qualities for a great commander p185 The concept of the culminating point of victory (ie, on the highest operational and strategic level) is closely related to the problem of war termination. At the culminating point of victory, the victor has gone as far as he can without risking a reversal of fortune and attained the strongest possible position realtive to his opponent: now he must consider the issue of war termination - how to consolidate his gains on the battlefield into enduring political results (ie favorable, lasting peace) p198 History is replete with examples of decisive military victories that led nowhere because the victor was not ready to acknowledge the legitimate interests of the vanquished adversary p218 Sun Tzu is acutely sensitive to the psychological factors that enable the enemy's perceptions to be manipulated; he knows that those convinced of their own superiority are usually oblivious to the need to be on guard against deception p240 Clausewitz frequently compares war to a game of cards dominated by uncertainty, Jomini compares war to the more structured game of chess; Sun Tzu's theory of war, on the other hand, can be compared to the game of go p261 Sun Tzu prizes steadiness, resolution, stability, patience, and calmness, which enable a general faced with the chaos and adversity of war to make rational, calculated decisions. Generals who react without reflection, who are courageous but easily lose control, are most susceptible to manipulation by the enemy. When untempered by rationality and driven by rash impulse, courage ends in self-destruction p267 Sun Tzu's insistence on the necessity of making fast decisions in order to capitalize on unique opportunities implies that the commander must rely on his 'gut feelings'; after all, he has no time to contemplate an infinite number of ever-changing variables p273 Both Sun Tzu and Clausewitz believe that in this most critical test of military leadership, the commander must combine courage and daring with reflectiveness, but the two strategists differe in emphasis: Clausewitz, on the whole, prefers boldness to calculation, while Sun Tzu favors what we would call calculated risks p285 According to Corbett, naval strategists must accept the fact that war at sea is not usually a zero-sum game, since it is rarely possible to achieve full command of the sea #@# Beach Salt&STeel Naval Inst 1999 p64 lost only an outmoded combat branch.. Pearl Harbor amounted to radical overthrow of the religion naval high priests p128 Japan lost the war whne she could no longer control her own seas around Japan. She had totally lost control of her own air space, as round-the-clock bombings were proving. p166 country wanted to return to peacetime.. prewar isolationism.. exhuberant returning servicemen being set upon by civilian toughs, smoe perhaps fearing for their jobs p180 RIckover was not the right man for this job, though this was not through lack of trying. He had tried very hard, very hard indeed. In the process he established himself as a despot who could never be satisfied. By reputation he was a amverick who knew the mechanical details of his job well enough, but could not handle men. His treatment of everyone junior to him was demeaning. Despuite Rickover's best efforts, S-48 was a mechanical nightmare during her entire service. She was a lemon from the begining. Under RIckover as exec, she became known as a madhouse. p219 Navy [vs air armadas] has, ever since 1949, been our preferred instrument for the projection of power, and this is true because it has the greatest flexibility. Thhe revolt of the admirals [Denfield, Radford, Burke], the sacrifice of the chief admiral, the demotion or cashiering of others involved in the revolt, was one of the biggest contributions to the future of our country that could have benn made.. put all they had into the scales.. brought official displeasure upon themselves.. nation is the better for it p261 Enough has been written about Rickover.. far more than simply propulsion. He set a perfection standard so high that the United States has had virtually no nuclear accidents of any kind, in naval plants or in the shore-based power plants p280 Elimination of an enemy's ability to contest use of the sea in support of the war was the objective #@# Thry Intl Pol Waltz (Harvard,Berkeley) 1979 MGH 0-07-554852-6 p51 balance-of-power.. 1. Act to increase capabilities but negotiate rather than fight. 2. Fight rather than pass up an opportunity to increase capabilites. 3. Stop fighting rather than eliminate an essential national actor. 4. Act to oppose any coalition or single actor which tends to assume a position of predominance.. 5. Act to constrain actors who subscribe to supranational organizing principles. 6. Permit defeated or constrained essential national actors to re-enter the system as acceptable role partners.. they are essential, interdependent, and in equilibrium with one another; and, as prescriptions for the actors, they are inconsistent and contradictory ([Kaplan, Syst&Proc] 1964, pp 9,25,52-53) p66 relevance of Thucydides in the era of nuclear weapons.. texture of international politics remains highly constant, patterns recur, and events repeat themselves endlessly. The relations that prevail internationally seldom shift rapidly in type or in quality. They are marked instead by dismaying persistence, a persistence that one must expect so long as none of the competing units is able to convert the anarchic international realm into a hierarchic one. The enduring character of international politcs accounts for the striking sameness in the quality of international life through the millenia, a statement that will meet with wide assent p117 Ever since Machiavelli, interest and necessity - and raison d'etat, the phrase that comprehends them - have remained the key concepts of Realpolitik. From Machiavelli through Meinecke and Morgenthau the elements of the approach and the reasoning remain constant. Machiavelli stands so clearly as the exponent of Realpolitik that one easily slips into thinking that he developed the closely associated idea of balance of power as well. Although he did not, his conviction that politics can be explained in its own terms established the ground on which balance-of-power theory can be built p118 A balance-of-power theory, properly stated, begins with assumptions about states: They are unitary actors who, at minimum, seek their own preservation and, at a maximum, drive for universal domination. States, or those who act for them, try in more or less sensible ways to use the means available in order to achieve the ends in view. Those means fall into two categories: internal efforts (moves to increase economic capability, to increase military strength, to develop clever strategies) and external efforts (moves to strengthen and enlarge one's own alliance or to weaken and shrink an opposing one) p120 pupose of the balance is "to maintain the stability of the system without destroying the multiplicity of the elements composing it" [Morgenathau, Pol Among Nations, 5ed Knopf, 1973, pp 167-74,202-207].. "the balance of power" can impose its restraints upon the power aspirations of nations" only if they first "restrain themselves by accepting the system of balance of power as the common frameork of their endeavors." Only if states recongize "the same rules of the game" and play "for the same limited stakes" can the balance of power fulfill "its functions for international stability and national independence" [pp219-20] p126 As soon as someone looks like the winner, nearly all jump on the bandwagon rather than continuing to build coalitions intended to prevent anyone from winning the prize of power. Bandwagoning, not balancing, becomes the characteristic behavior.. states work harder to increase their own strength, or they combine with others, if they are falling behind.. breaking apart of a war-winning coalition in or just after the moment of victory. We do not expect the strong to combine with the strong in order to increase the strength of their power over others, but rather to square off and look for allies who might help them p134 Thay are at once limited by their situations and able to act to affect them. They have to react to the actions of others whose actions may be changed by the reaction.. Great powers, like large firms, have always had to allow for the reactions of others p144 Because of their similarity, states are more dangerous than useful to one another.. Interdependence is reduced by increases in the disparity of national capabilities p192 According to the common American definition of power, a failure to get one's way is proof of weakness. In politics, however, powerful agents fail to impress their wills on others in just the ways they intend to.. I offer the old and simple notion that an agent is powerful to the extent that he affects other more than they effect him p205 States, and especially the major ones, do not act only for their own sakes. They also act for the world's common good. But the common good is defined by each of them for all of us, and the definitions conflict. One may fear the arrogance of the global burden-bearers more than the selfishness of those who tend to their own narrowly defined interests.. Close competition subordinates ideology to interest; states that enjoy a margin of power over their closest competitors are led to pay undue attention to minor dangers and to pursue fancies abroad that reach beyond the fulfillment of interests narrowly defined in terms of security #@# Keohane&Nye(Harvard) Power&Interdep 2ed 1989 ScottForsmn 0-673-39891-9 pp10-11 It is assymmetries in dependence that are most likely to provide sources of influence for actors in their dealings with one another. Less dependent actors can often use the interdependent relationship as a source of power in bargaining over an issue and perhaps to affect other issues pp24-5 Multiple channels [instead of govt] connect societies, including: informal ties.. nongovernmental elites.. banks or corporations.. multiple issues.. absence of hierarchy [hence tradeoff] among issues means, among other things, that military security does not consistently dominate.. Politics does not stop at the water's edge.. Military force is not used by governments toward other governments within the region, or on the issues, when complex interdependence prevails p45 During the heyday of the sterling standard, industrial production in France, Germany, Russia, and the United States increased from 50 percent to 400 percent faster than in Britain. Although the United States dominated the monetary system of the postwar period, Europe and Japan grew more rapidly than it did.. Ironically, the benefits of a hegemonial system, and the extent to which thay are shared, may bring about its collapse. As their economic power increases, secondary states change their assumptions. No longer do they have to accept a one-sided dependence which, no matter how prosperous, adversely affects governmentl autonomy and political status p53 Some regimes - for example in trade among major industrial countries - have persisted despite shifts in the underlying power structure; others - as we shall see in our study of oceans policy - have changed despite continuity of power.. States with intense preferences and coherent positions will bargain more effectively than states constrained by domestic and transnational actors [cf JSMill: belief=99interests] p55 set of networks, norms, and institutions, once established, will be difficult either to eradicate or drastically to rearrange.. Regimes are established and organized in conformity with distributions of capabilities, but subsequently the relevant networks, norms, and institutions will themselves influence actor's abilities to use these capabilities p78 Only in late 1958, when currency convertibility was achieved in Europe [Japan 1980], did the recovery regime give way to full implememtation of the regime agreed to at Bretton Woods in 1944 p101 In 1946, a British naval force made a costly effort to assert that the Corfu Strait off Albania was international waters. In 1958, the united States sent a naval force through the straits of Lombok to protest Indonesia's claim that it was territorial waters. The United States and the Soviet Union have refused to recognize Indonesian and Malaysian juridiction over the straits of Malacca. Between 1957 and 1967, Britain and the United States used naval gestures to counter Egyptian restrictions on Israel's navigation, particualry in the Straits of Tiran, but these efforts were not successful.. In 1968, the United States failed to respond with force to North Korea's seizure of the electronic surveillance ship Pueblo; but in 1975 it responded with force to the Cambodian seizure of the freighter Mayaguez p120 After 1971, American refusal or reluctance to support the dollar in foreign exchange markets was often taken as part of a strategy to force other countries to agree to international monetary reforms favored by the United States p139 The issue structure model helps us understand the collapse of the monetary regime in 1931 and makes a major contribution to explaining the breakdown of the Bretton Woods regime in 1971.. shaky world financial situation of the 1920s.. United States was not preparred to take strong action.. France resented British preeminance in the international monetary area, which was symbolized and supported by the fact that sterling had been returned to its prewar parity with gold whereas the franc had depreciated many times over p143 In 1886, half of the world's merchat tonnage (ships over 100 tons) was British, and in 1914, the British merchant fleet still represented 40 percent of world tonnage (and was four times larger than the second-ranking German fleet). Britain had both the interest to establish a free seas regime (except, as we said earlier, in wartime, which she treated as a special case) and the structural power to enforce it p155 In 1971, however, it was not a banker who advised Nixon to take strong action, but "Mr Peter Peterson, ex-president of Bell and Howell, a midwest corporation which became a conglomerate by being driven out of its original photographics by Japanese competition" [Economist 5Aug72 p62].. not that distant-water fishermen, shippers, ad the navy determined oceans policy themselves, or that the bankers controlled monetary policy absolutely; but that as long as opposition to these groups was not very strong, they benefited by being able to identify their preferences with contemporary political conceptions of America's role in world affairs. The particular interests of domestic groups and the perceived national interests of the political leadership reinforced each other p229 And such orderly delegation of authority in world politics is not likely. Leadership can take a variety of forms. In common parlance, leadership can mean: (1) to direct or command; (2) to go first; and (3) to induce. These definitions roughly correspond to three types of international leadership: hegemony, unilateralism, and multilateralism p237 attention to compensating groups that bear the heaviest costs of adjustment to change.. adjustment assistance in the 1974 trade legislation.. narrow adjustment assistance provision of the Trade Expansion Act that President Kennedy pressed as part of a grand security design in the early 1960s.. directly affect particular groups, and touch the lives of nearly all citizens. If domestic interest groups are powerful enough to block policies favored by the president - such as th epolicy of selling large quantities of grain to the Soviet Union in September 1975 - top officials may no longer be able to determine policy p246 Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia, Israel's of Lebanon, and the Iran-Iraq war all indicate that force remains an option in regional rivalries between small.. Nationalism has acted as a constraint on the superpowers, as both the failure of Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and the weakness of the American response to Iran's taking of hostages have indicated.. relatively low cost and effectiveness of the Eisenhower administration's interventions in Iran (1953), Guatemala (1954), and Lebanon (1958) with the more recent difficluties encountered by the United States in Iran, Nicaragua, and Lebanon during the 1980s p262 Just as allowing players in Prisoner's Dilemma to communicate with one another alters the nature of the game, so also institutions that increase the capability of states to communicate and to reach mutually beneficial agreements can add to the common grammar of statecraft and thus alter these results p269 [repr For Pol 60 Fall 1985 "Two Cheers for Multilateralism" ] For the Reagan administration in 1981, the United States was accepting too much govermental intervention disguised as international policy coordination. It viewed interest- and exchange-rate regulation as the job of the market and the IMF as a self-aggrandizing international bureaucracy. Increasing energy production at home was considered more important than strengthening the International Energy Agency (IEA) and its procedures for international policy coordination. Halting the proliferation of nuclear weapons, candidate Ronald Reagan once contended, was not "any of our business." An imperfect draft Law of the Sea Treaty could be safely abandoned. The administration's solution was not a more vigorous effort at multilateral cooperation, but a recovery of lost strength and US asseriveness p276 governments develop reputations for compliance, not just to the letter of the law but to the spirit as well. These reputations constitute one of their most important assets #@# Strateg Tht Am 1952-1996 Trachtenberg PSQ 104#2 1989 p303 hydrogen bomb that marked the decisive break with the past p307 War between the United States and the Soviet Union was not impossible.. question of deterrence could not be divorced from the question of use p309 game-like aspects of military policy became increasingly salient.. intellectual vacuum.. economists.. drawn into this vacuum p313 Wohlstetter was able to show in much greater detail just how vulnerable America's strategic forces were p314 Wohstetter laid out these basic ideas in "the Delicat Balance of Terror," [For Aff 37 1/59] probably the single most important article in the history of American strategic thought.. "If the Soviet leaders," Brodie [Strat in Msl Age Princeton 1959 p355] asked, "should ever decide that by a surprise attack they would confidently count on destroying our strategic retaliatory force, whose purpose it is constantly to threaten their existence, would it not be their duty as good Bolsheviks to launch that attack?" p321 Counterforce was not nearly as hopeless.. Soviets, moreover, did not go in for the kind of alert measures that were common practice in the American air force, and the situation evidently did not change much even during times of crisis.. How was the astonishing vulnerability of the Soviet nuclear force to be explained? The Soviet intercontinental force had evidently been starved for resources. The odd thing here was that the Soviets had spent more, by American estimates, on anti-aircraft artillery alone since 1945 than on their strategic forces - heavy bombers, missle submarines, and ICBMs. The explation for this bizarre behavor, Loftus and Marshall argued, had to do with established patterns of resource allocation rooted in the balance of bureauctatic power in the Soviet military establishment p325 It was unlikely that a rational enemy who chose to attack would use anything more than a small portion of his total force in the first wave [Wohlstetter and Rowen RAND 1May59].. Hence strategic forced would be reserved, and there would be something meaningful to counter.. Both counterforce and city defense carried with them "some danger of destabilizing the deterrent balance" p331 Under John F Kennedy, the strategy of massive retaliation was explicitly rejected.. something had changed after Vietnam p332 Schelling's case, was to transform strategy once again into tactics writ large - not military tactics this time, but bargaining tactics #@# Conv Deter & Conv Retal in Eur Huntington Intl Scty 8#3 Wtr83-4 p33 The standard reassurances of the validity of the American nuclear guarantee, as Henry Kissinger put it in 1979, "cannot be true" and it is absurd to base the strategy of the West on the credibility of the threat of mutual suicide" [in Myers NATO Westview 1980 p7] p39 An initial offensive by a strong an determined attacker, particularly if accompanied by surprise, inevitably will score some gains. As Saadia Amiel summed up the lessons of the 1973 Arab-Israeli war and the implications of precision guided munitions (PGMs): "without very clear offensive options, a merely passive or responsive defensive strategy, which is based on firepower and fighting on friendly territory, cannot withstand an offensive strategy of an aggressor who possesses a relatively large, well-prepared standing offensive military force" [Survival 20p59] p46 First, necessary to clear away the popular cliche that the offensive requires a three-to-one overall superiority. It this were the case, NATO's problems would be over. Under no circumstances, given the current balance and probable rates of mobilization on each side, could the Warsaw Pact achieve an overall three-to-one superiority over NATO. Most scenarios do not deviate much from Fischer's 1976 estimate [IISS pp24-5] that Pact superiorit in men in combat units would peak at about 2:1 two weeks after Pact mobilization began, assuming NATO mobilization lagged one week. Unfortunately, however, 3:1 overall superiority is not what is required to attack. It is instead what is required at the exact point of attack. p47 inferior in overall strength can still pursue an offensive strategy. History is full of successful examples. THe German offensive into France in 1940 and the North Vietnamese offensive in 1975 are two such cases. As US Navy FM 100-5 points out, other examples are the Third Army's attack through France in 1944, the US Offensive in Korea in 1951, and the Israeli Sinai campaign of 1967. In these cases, as in Grant's Vicksburg campaign (cited at length in FM 100-5 [20Aug82 p8-5] as a model offensive), the attackers succeeded "by massing unexpectedly where they could achieve a brief local superiority and by preserving their initial advantage through relentless exploutation" p56 Effective retaliation means credible retaliation, and in today's world, credible retaliation means conventional retaliation #@# Between Power and Principle: An Integrated Theory of International Law Spring, 2005 72 U. Chi. L. Rev. 469 Oona A. Hathaway As long as there was no sovereign power to manage enforcement, critics argued, international law was meaningless.. the interest-based approach, argues that states create and comply with international law only when there is some clear objective reward for doing so; in other words, states follow consequentialist reasoning or what has been termed the "logic of consequences." The second, which I label the norm-based approach, argues that governments create and comply with treaties not only because they expect a reward for doing so, but also because of their commitment (or the commitment of transnational actors that influence them) to the norms or ideas embodied in the treaties. Hence, in this view, states often follow what has been termed the "logic of appropriateness" rather than that of consequences.. This model, termed the "liberal institutionalist" perspective.. states pursue the aims preferred by "powerful domestic interest groups enfranchised by representative institutions and practices.".. First, international treaty law is voluntary--states are not bound by it unless they accede to it. Second, international law lacks a single sovereign with the power to enforce the law.. Legal enforcement is determined by the terms of the treaty and the enforcement of those terms as specific legal obligations.. International law thus creates a more strongly observed obligation in states in which the government is constrained by independent courts that allow extragovernmental actors to challenge state action (and hence in which domestic enforcement is significant).. The transnational legal enforcement of the terms of the treaty can draw states into joining treaties by offering benefits to those who join.. Costs may be generated by enforcement of treaty terms by a treaty body charged with monitoring the terms of the treaty.. Many treaties permit members to engage in enforcement of the terms of a treaty to which they belong by engaging in reciprocal defection or unilateral or coalitional enforcement in retaliation for the failure of another member to meet the treaty's terms.. Collateral consequences arise when domestic and transnational actors premise their actions toward a state on the state's decision to accept or reject international legal rules.. collateral consequences may motivate states to comply with their legal commitments to demonstrate to other states that they will keep their international agreements, even if the agreements turn out to be unfavorable for them.. transnational actors may accept treaty ratification as an indication of a government's intentions, even if the state's current practices are not consistent with the treaty.. States that have better human rights and environmental records are not more--and are sometimes even less--likely to join human rights and environmental treaties than states that have worse records.. To improve compliance with international law, efforts should be made to mitigate the tradeoff between enforcement of and commitment to international treaties. Effective domestic enforcement of international legal commitments is essential to their success. International legal compliance can therefore be improved by strengthening domestic rule of law institutions. International law can and should take better advantage of states' regard for collateral consequences to foster behavior that is consistent with international law. #@# Richard Pipes Sov Think Win Nucl War Commentary 7/77 p34 According to the most recent Soviet census (1970), the USSR had only nine cities with apopulation of one million or more; the aggregate population of these cities was 20.5 million, or 8.5 percent of the country's total. The uNited STates 1970 census showed thrity-five metropolitan centers with over one million inhabitants, totaling 84.5 million people, or 41.5 percent of the country's aggregate. #@# The Road to Moscow Gary Hart, Dimitri K Simes. The National Interest. Washington:May/Jun 2009. Iss. 101, p. 4-7,2 (5 pp.) not become a full-fledged capitalist democracy on the American model quickly enough, the rule of law is too slow in taking root, Moscow is not living up to our norms of human rights, elections are rigged, the media suppressed, economic transactions are not transparent and the list goes on. The continued existence of the Jackson-Vanik amendment-which withheld trade benefits in an effort to force the Soviet Union to allow freer emigration-almost two decades after Communism's collapse seems to be proof positive. The amendment has in the past been circumvented for both China and Vietnam, not to mention former Soviet republics Ukraine and Georgia, the latter of which in particular is hardly a model democracy.. we cannot insist on measures Russia sees as antagonistic even as we seek Moscow's cooperation on matters of concern to us.. believing they had made the choices that brought down Soviet Communism. As such, they expected to be welcomed as heroic new friends in the early 1990s, not criticized as insufficiently repentant. Because it was heavily dependent upon the International Monetary Fund and other foreign creditors, Boris Yeltsin's Russia often complained about U.S. disregard for Russian positions and engaged in saber rattling-like the seizure of Pristina's airport during NATO's 1999 war on Yugoslavia over Kosovo.. Perhaps unsurprisingly in view of Russian history, today's more confident Moscow often overreacts and overplays its hand, exacerbating almost any dispute it enters. As a result, even when Russia has an arguably legitimate case, like when Georgian forces attacked Russian peacekeepers in South Ossetia in August 2008 or when Ukraine failed to pay its debts to Gazprom, Russian public diplomacy often suffers from exaggerated, haughty and dismissive rhetoric that undermines Moscow's positions and rubs many the wrong way.. Neither wants to see a nuclear-armed Iran or North Korea - or nuclear-armed terrorists. Like the United States, Moscow wants to prevent the Taliban from returning to power in Afghanistan and views al-Qaeda as a hostile terrorist organization.. Russia does not have the same sense of priority or urgency as America in dealing with Iran; after all, it has had fairly good relations with the Islamic Republic for the last thirty years. Iran is an important Russian commercial partner and has not attempted to incite Muslim extremism in Russia. (For some perspective, it is useful to recall that while the United States does not welcome India's possession of nuclear weapons, we do not make it a defining issue in the U.S. relationship with New Delhi.) #@# The Panda Menace Antoine Halff. The National Interest. Washington:Jul/Aug 2007. Iss. 90, p. 35-41 Like everyone in the energy sphere, I have seen my world transformed these last few years by the surge in China's demand for energy and other commodities.. Chinese corporations in Africa have government, economic and political support that tie resource deals, massive aid and development packages. These include cheap loans (some of which have been written off altogether by Beijing as part of a debt-forgiveness program) and massive infrastructure projects.. Beijing has been a key arms supplier to the Sudanese junta, has provided Zimbabwe with military equipment to jam opposition radio programs during electoral campaigns and recently has begun to supply the Nigerian regime with arms to quash rebel militias in the Niger Delta.. China's willingness to back infrastructure projects with little consideration for their environmental impact and the poor environmental record of its mining and oil extractive companies in Africa are becoming increasingly controversial.. flood African markets with cheap Chinese-manufactured goods, while undermining domestic manufacturers as it imports much of Africa's energy and raw materials.. In Pakistan, China's plan to develop the port of Gwadar-a key link in China's alleged "string of pearls" policy of securing naval outposts across the Asian coastline and Pakistan's largest investment in its economic future-has become a target of the Baluch insurgency. Meanwhile, the conflict in Lebanon in the summer of 2006 brought home to China the unintended risks of supporting its quest for resources with arms deals. Hizballah-launched missiles, obtained from Tehran and developed from the Chinese Silkworm model, fell on Israeli targets last summer, much to Beijing's displeasure #@# Senior Chinese diplomat visits Taliban chief in Afghanistan December 13, 2000 Islamabad Deutsche Presse-Agentur The Chinese ambassador in Pakistan, Lu Shulin, held talks with the Afghan Taliban chief Mullah Mohammad Omar in Kandahar on Tuesday, raising the contacts between the two sides to a new high, the Afghan Islamic Press (AIP) agency reported Wednesday.. AIP said China acquired U.S. cruise missile technology from the Taliban, which passed on the unexploded missiles from the U.S. attack in 1998 on suspected bin Laden camps in Afghanistan. The news agency said the Afghan people expect China to veto the U.S.-Russian resolution in the Security Council because it also seeks an arms embargo exclusively against the Taliban, assuring continued supplies to its opponents who are supported by the anti-Taliban nations. #@# The First World Hacker War By CRAIG S. SMITH NY Times May 13, 2001 After last month's collision of an American spy plane and a Chinese jet, hackers in the United States and China began defacing Web sites on both sides of the Pacific. Then Chinese hackers, led by a group called the Honkers Union, declared war. #@# Clash Civ Huntington Frn Aff Smr 1993 p26 The revival of religion, "la revanche de Dieu," as Gilles Kepel labelled it, provides a basis for identity and commitment that transcends national boundaries and unites civilization pp30-31 Ottoman or Tsarist empires and were only lightly touched by the shaping events in the rest of Europe; they are generally less advanced economically; the seem much less likely to develop stable democratic political systems p32 "We are facing a mood and a movement far transcending the level of issues and policies anf the governments that pursue them. THis is no less a clash of civilizations - the perhaps irrational but surely historic reaction of an ancient rival against Judeao-Christian heritage, our secular present and the world-wide expression of both" [Bernard Lewis Roots of Muslim Rage Atlantic v266 9/90 p60 Time 15Jun92 P24-28] p33 Historically, the other great antagonistic interaction of Arab Islamic civilization has been with the pagan, animist, and now increasingly Christian black peoples to the south. In the past, this antagonism was epitomized in the image of Arab slave dealers and black slaves. It has been reflected in the on-going civil war in the Sudan between Arabs and blacks, the fighting in Chad between Libyan-supported insurgents and the government, the tension between Orthodox Christians and Muslims in the Horn of Africa, and the political conflicts, recurring riots and communal violene between Muslims and Christians in Nigeria. The modernization of Africa and the spread of Christianity are likely to enhance the probability of violence along this fault line p37 Third, with respect to the fighting in the former Yugoslavia, Western publics manifested sympath and support for the Bosnian Muslims and the horrors they suffered at the hands of the Serbs. Relatively little concern was expressed, however, over Croatian attacks on Muslims and participationin the dismemberment of Bosnia-Herzegovina. In the early stages of the Yugoslav breakup, Germany, in an unusual display of diplomatic initiative and muscle, induced the other 11 members of the European Community to follow its lead in recognizing Slovenia and Croatia. As a result of the pope's determination to provide strong backing to the two Catholic countries, the Vatican extended recognition even before the Community did. THe United States followe dthe European lead. Thus the leading actors in Western civilization rallied behind their coreligionists. Subsequently Croatia was reported to be receiving substantial quantities of arms from Central European and other Western countries. Boris Yeltsin's government, on the other hand, attempted to pursue a middle course that would be sympathetic ti the Orthodox Serbs but not alienate Russia from the West p40 Georgy Arbatov's characterization of IMF officials as "neo-Bolsheviks who love expropriating othe rpeople's money, imposing undemocratic and alien rules of economic and political conduct and stiffling economic freedom" p46 truth of the response of the Indian defense minister when asked what lesson he learned from the Gulf War: "Dont' fight the United States unless you have nuclear weapons" p47 China has receiver Stinger missles from Pakistan. A Confucian-Islamic military connection has come into being, designed to promote acquisition by its member of the weapons and weapons technologies needed to counter the military poer of the West #@# How Countries Democratize Huntngton PSQ 106#4 1991 p599 weakening, reassuring, and converting the standpatters. Countering standpatter resistance often requiered a concentration of power in the reform chief executive. Geisel asserted himself as a "dictator of the abertura" in order to force the Brazilian military out of politics. Juan Carlos exercised his powers and peroogatives to the full in moving Spain towards democracy, not least in the surprise selection of Suarez as prinme miniter. Botha and Gorbachev, as we have seen, created powerful new presidential offices for themselves. Salinas dramatically asserted hispowers during his first years as Mexico's president. The first requirement for reform leaders was to purge the governemntal, military, and, where appropriate, party bureaucracies, replacing standpatters in top offices with supporters of reform. THis was typically done in selective fashion so as not ot provoke strong reaction and so as to promote fissions within the standpatter ranks. In addition to weakening standpatters, reform leaders also tried to reassure and convert them. In military regimes, the reformers argued that it was time to go back, after a necessary but limited authoritarian interlude.. "backward legitimacy" p600 As the reformers alienated standpatters within the governing coaltion, they had to reinforce themselves by developing support within the opposition and by expanding the political arena and appealing to the new groups that were becoming politically active as a result of the opening. Skillful reformers used the increased pressure from these groups for democratization to weaken the standpatters, and used the threat of a standpatter coup as well as the attraction of a share in power to strengthen moderate groups in the opposition pp601 principal lessons of the Spanish, Brazilian, and other transformations.. (1) Secure your political base. As quickly as possible place supporters of democratization in key power.. (2) Maintain backward legitimacy, that is, make changes through the stablished procedures p602 symbolic concessions.. two steps forward, one step backward. (3) Gradually shift your own constituency so as to reduce your dependence on governemtn groups opposing change and to broaden your constituency in the direction of opposition groups supporting democracy. (4) Be prepared for the standpatters to take some extreme action to stop change (for example, a coup attempt) - possibly even stimulate them to do so - and then crack down on them ruthlessly, isolating and discreditingthe more extreme opponents of change. (5) Seize and keep control of the initiative in the democratization process. Only lead from strength and never introduce democratization measures in response to obvious pressure from more extreme radical opposition groups. (6) Keep expectations low as to how far change can go; talk in terms of maintaining an ongoing process rather than achieving some fully elaborated democartic utopia. (7) Encourage development of a responsible, moderate opposition party, which the key grous in society (including the military) will accept as a plausible non-threatening alternative governement. (8) Create a sense of inevitability about the process of democratization so that it becomes widely accepted as a necessary and natural course of development even if to some people it remains an undesirable one p607-8 Overthrowing.. attention on illegitimacy..Encourage the disaffected groups to support democracy.. Cultivate generals..Practice and preach nonviolence.. Seize every opportunity to express opposition.. Develop contacts.. transnational.. Promote unity among opposition groups.. be prepared quickly to fill the vacuum #@# IntroArts Collins 1969 Columbia p1 architecture is usually not representative.. modify the landscape.. lintel or cross-beam rests on two or more posts p2 Arcuated construction (using arches, vaults and domes..).. arc is composed of wedge-shaped pieces, voussoirs, set radially. This makes feasible a far greater span.. push to the sides, called lateral thrust.. pointed arch, common in Gothic.. vault is a whole fabric of arches that forms a covering p5 steel frame and reinforced concrete construction it is possible to extend beams out over space (ie to cantilever them) [indeterminate stress] p7 Parthenon.. Persian destruction.. cut marble withour mortar, with wooden roof beams and certain iron reinforcements and bronze attachments.. center of the eastern pediment was lost in construction of the Christian apse p9 profiles of columns taper to the top and bulge in an almost imperceptible curve.. columns all lean a little toward the center.. Greeks themselves felt they were correcting for the spectator's eye the tendency of perfectly straight horizontal lines to appear to sag or for sets of parallel lines to deform themselves optically p11 [Amiens Notre Dame, largest Gothic] use of pointed arches, rib vaults and flying butresses enable vast spaces and at the same time to open up large areas of the wall to stained glass p14 St Peter's in Rome had originally been built for the Emperor Constantine in the forth century near the site of the martyrdom of St Peter in the circus of Nero.. Under Pope Julius II (1503-13) ambitious plans for a new structure in an new style led to demolation of the ancient basilica p19 Startling to the modern mind is the idea that until the Rennaissance polychromy was used extensively on all statuary p20 free-standing sculpture (sculpture in the round) and relief (sculpture attached to its background) p21 Phidias.. "Elgin Marbles".. Athena Parthenos.. flesh was of ivory and the drapery and accessories of gold with some precious and semiprecious stones.. metopes.. 92 slabs.. each side of the temple has a separate theme. Each theme is a contest.. On the east were Gods and Giants, on the west Greeks and Amazons, on the noth Greeks and Trojans (probably), and on the south Centaurs and Lapiths p22 frieze presents the Panathenaic.. summoned every four years.. procession of the free citizenry.. peplos, a robe for the statue woven by chosen maidens of Athens, was dedicated and placed upon the shoulders of Athena. Throughout the frieze we observe an insistence on isocephalism, the adjustment of the heads close to one horizontal p23 [Amiens] importance of ordering the encyclopedic vastness of the world is shown, for example, in the Four Mirrors established in the writings of Vincent of Beauvais: that of nature (creation, the vegetable and animal world, monsters and grotesques); that of science or instruction (human labor, the crafts and the arts); that of morals (the virtues and vices); and the mirror of history (the related Old and New Testament stories, apocryphal books, and the lives of saints.. contrast witht he relatively clear and sparse sculptures on the Greek temple, the sculpture of the cathedral was of countless and intermingling [clutter].. trumeau (post between the doors) of the central portal stands the Beau-Dieu, a figure of Christ triumphant over four grotesque animals, the lion (here a symbol of the antichrist), the dragon (devil), the adder (sin), and basilisk (death). Concerning this symbolism, see the 91st Psalm.. Above the Beau-Dieu, in the tympanum, Christ is seen in his most fateful role: here is the Last Judgement, presenting tiered scenes of the Resurrection of the Dead, the Blessed and the Damned, the Heavenly City above, with angels bearing instruments of the Passion, and Mary and John as Intercessors p24 vast majority of churchgoers of the thriteenth century were not able to read inscriptions, but were particularly responsive to visual images. St John, for example, holds the cup from which he drank poison; St James the Greater ears the cockle shells of a medieval pilgrim to his own shrine of Santiago de Compostela.. simple geometric multiples of one-two-four-eight (eg one column, two triglyphs and metopes, four mutules and lions' heads, eight roof-tiles).. Three for them was also basic, but it was the Trinity, a three-in-one and sacred, whereas four (the elements) was secular or mundane (the quartefoil).. an encyclopaedia carved in stone p25 St Peter with the key, St Nicholas with the three golden balls, St Barbara with the tower, St Margaret with the dragon.. Roman Sybils who had foretold, it was believed, the coming of Christ.. Profane and the Sacred -- a compendium of knowledge; but everything, as St Thomas puts it, "ordered towards God".. three days inside the Whale represent the resurrection of Christ, as Melchisedek offering bread and wine to Abraham represented the Last Supper.. cruciform church represented the Cross, and the weathercock on the spire the preacher who rouses the sleeping from the night of sin p27 Michelangelo Buonarroti.. attention of the Medici.. His philosophical oulook was influenced by Neoplatonism and his religious viewpoint by Savonarola.. increasing disenchanted with Renaissance values and, toward the end of his life, imbued his art with a mystical, almost medieval Christianity p34 Since the Benin sculptors used relatively permanent media, such as bronze (cast by the cire_perdue method) and ivory, some sculptures date back to the 15th century, making Benin the only place in sub-Sharan Africa where one can trace the stylistic and iconographic development of art through several centuries.. subject if Benin art was almost exclusively the king himself p37 water-soluble glue (gum arabic).. water color.. tempera technique was standard for small painting in Europewell into the Renaissance period. The binding agent here was traditionally one of the standard emulsions (a solution of watery and oily constituents): the yolk or the white of the egg, or casein derived from milk. The usual ground for the temera painting was a carefully smoothed layer of gesso (glue and white plaster).. could not greely be moved around; transitions of tone were necessarily built up of thousands of tiny, but separate, brush strokes.. oil technique uses as a binder a natural drying oil such as linseed oil or one of various nut oils. In the fully developed technique the support was usually a linen canvas with a ground of white lead in oil. This ground was nonabsorbent. The oil paint was pasty.. remained workable on the canvas for 24 to 72 hours.. could be worked in thick, pasty layers (impasto) and blended p38 fresco the pigment is mixed only with water before it is brushed onto the fresh, wet plaster p40 Raffaello Sanzio.. 1504-08 Raphael worked in Florence, where he was greatly influenced by Leonardo and Michelangelo. In 1508 he was called to Rome by Julius II to decoratethe Camera della Segnatura p42 Peter Bruegel [purgatorial clutter].. dominance of the Netherlands by Catholic Spain, and the Inquisition imposed by Philip II p43 Domenikos Theotokopoulos, known as El Greco.. born in Crete near Candia and was first trained in the late medieal Byzantine [subdimensional] style [inspired Cubism].. Catholic Counter Reformation movement and of the thought and power of the Jesuit Order p44 Rembrandt van Rijn [dark over light paint to depict glow].. portrait painter.. 1634 he married Saskia.. deat in 1642.. grew more introspective, his style became more intimate and personal.. liberation of Holland from Spanish rule, the consequent emergence of a Dutch Protestantism and the expansion of Dutch mercantilism p46 strongly flecked technique and highly random composition now called impressionism p65 Linear perspective is a mathematical system for representing on a flat surface the apparent dimunition of objects as they recede from the observer. Though the phenomenon was been obesrves and recorde din ancient times, the Italian artists of the Early Renaissance were the first to forumalte the mathematical system of construction that would assure the precise application of the broad principle #@# Theol Icon Ouspensky trGythiel 1978 svots.edu 0-88141-124-8 p24 The church can be divided into three parts (the sanctuary, the nave and the narthex), according to the plan of the tabernacle of Moses and the temple of Solomon.. church faces east.. sunrise: Christ is glorified as "the Orient from on high" p38 existence of frescoes in the catacombs from the first century on is well known, namely in places of assembly and worship, and where the clergy were buried (for example, in the catacomb of Callistus) p46 explanations of St John of Damascus [vs iconoclast]. If, in the Old Testament, the direct revelation of God was manifest only by the word, in the New Testament it is made manifest both by word and by image. The Invisible became visible p63 The oldest historical evidence we have about the icons painted by St Luke dates back to the sixth century. It is attributed to Theodore, calle "the Lector," a Byzantine historian in the first half of the century (around 530) and a reader in the church of St Sophia in Constantinople. Theodore speaks of an icon of the Virgin Hodigitria sent to COnstantinople in the year 450, which was attributed to St Luke. It was sent from Jerusalem by the Empress Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Theodosius II, to her sister, Pulcheria p130 "Divinity is equally present in an image of the cross and in other divine objects," St Theodore the Studite says, "not by virtue of identity of nature, for these objects are not the flesh of God, but by virtue of their relative participation in divinity, for they participate in the grace and the honor" [Antirheicus I 10 PG 99:340] p173 cannot represent this holiness, which we do not see; it cannot be portrayed by word, by image, or by any human means. In the icon, it can only be portrayed with the help of forms, colors, and symbolical lines, by an artistic language established by the Church and characterized by strict historical realism p420 In the eighteenth century, as in the seventeenth, the latinization of the Orthodox world continued. p474 Such art, introduced into Orthodoxy, was the outcome of spiritual decay, not the result of any change in doctrine. As compared to the doctrine, it remained a borrowed element, a foreign body with no link to the Tradition, and this to the spiritual inheritance of the historic Church [Fotis Kontoglu 1896-1965 iconography revival] p492 different artisitic language, that of the Church. This "distortion" is natural, or rather indispensable to express the content of the icon p508 Thus all iconoclasm in any form, open or secret, even pious, contributes to "disincarnate" the Incarnation, to undermine the economy of the Holy Spirit in the world, to destroy the Church #@# Frank Lloyd Wright, the many lives of. Pinck, Dan American Scholar; Spring94, Vol. 63 Issue 2, p267, 10p What do we know about Frank Lloyd Wright? We know that he is the last architect to bat over .400; that he is copied but rarely emulated; that he was a difficult person; that he had three wives and one emasculating mother; that he is still the most honored architect in the United States, with at least twenty of his houses and buildings open for public tours.. "I chose my ancestors with the greatest of care," Wright said. He was the son of a preacher (father) and a teacher (mother) and the descendant of a band of eccentric Nonconformists.. The Taliesin Fellowship is now a degree-granting institution, offering bachelor's and master's degrees. It is now called the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture.. Many cultures in many different nations contributed to his visions. Chinese, Japanese, Italian, Mexican, British, and American Indian vernaculars are discerned in some of his work.. His contributions in these fields include the use of radiant floor heating, recessed lighting, reinforced concrete, electricity for heating and cooking, air conditioning, ranch houses (they can be well designed), doubleglazed windows, atriums in taller buildings, subfloor telephone and electric light connections, low-cost housing communities, prefabricated housing, synthetic fire-resistant material, earthquake-resistant structures, wall-hung toilets, carports, and planned, regional cities in the manner espoused by his friend Lewis Mumford.. Wright wrote lists of things to avoid in designing houses; he said that visible roofs are expensive and unnecessary; old-fashioned basements, except for fuel and heater space are plague spots; furniture, pictures, and bric-a-brac are unnecessary because the walls can be made to include or be them; no gutters, no downspouts; no plastering in the building; no painting at all--wood best preserves itself.. What is Wright's secret? I believe that it lies in the Far East, in the Chinese practice of feng shui #@# Music W Civ P H Lang (Columbia) Norton 1997 1941 0-393-04074-7 p10 The listeners of antiquity followed a nonpolyphonic musical melody with an intensity unknown to us.. Greeks were capable of enjoying the slight and delicate inflections of a melodic line; their ears were keen enough to apprehend subtleties of intonation and color which we, with our harmonically and polyphonically trained ears, cannot perceive p19 Timotheus of Miletus (c446-357). His dithyrambs and nomes were redundant and prolix; his light and pleasant melodies were designed to thaw out the frozen majesty of the older art.. Plato and Aritotle saw in his music a mischievous offense, an uncalled-for infringement.. Aristophanes carried on a stinging crusade against the new tendency in music, because it adorned with flourishes the grave majestic line of the old music p20 Oxyehynchus papyrus.. transition period from the music of antique Greece to that of Christian Greece. The piece still shows the characteristics of classical music intact.. confirms the hypothesis that the original Hebrew songs as sung by the early Christians were displaced by examples of the highest type of antique musical practice soon after early Christendom came into contact with Greek civilization p22 Eastern Roman Empire, however, we see that the main provinces, and especially the capital itself, suffered relatively little from the ravages of continuous warfare, and that, on the contrary, the developed a spiritual and artisitic art of the highest order p23 The representatives of Byzantine musicology - Suidad (tenth century), Michael Osellus (eleventh century), Bryennius (twelfth century), and Pachymeres (thirteenth century) - do cast some furtive glances toward the music of their own time, but their main activity is reserved for the rediscovery of ancient musical doctrine p25 Byzantine music never encouraged the growth of instrumental music.. The Greeks had - as we have seen - two main instruments, the aulos and the lyre, while the Byzantines alloted the limited use they had for instruments to only one, the organ, which figured not in their church music, but only in what we have called court music. Cithara and aulos, which accompanies the entire musical production of Hellenistic Greece, diappeared with the annihilation by the Laodicean Concil of the theatre, pantomime, and virtuoso music. Like the aulos, the organ is of Oriental extraction.. no longer any metron, or measuring the length of syllables; their number had to be counted p29 characteristic feature of Byzantine singing is the prolongation of the last note of a phrase.. monodic character of ancient Greek music, whether solo or choric. Byzantine music, in its unadulterated form, is mainly monodic, exceot that the choir occasionally holds what may be termed an accompanying tone, This method of singing prevails up to this day in those domains of the Eastern Church untouched by Western music. Byzantine music notation evolved independent of the notation of classical Greece and should be considered one of the great and truly original achievements of Byzantine civilization.. Byzantines used signs that attempted to give a graphic indication of the design and progress of the melody, without, however, giving the exact pitch p32 The simple dignity of Greek melodies gave way to complicated rhythmical tunes which went through veritable contortions of modulation. p33 In 170-160 BC, the Roman public was still so vulgar and uneducated that the foremost Greek mucisians could not interest them unless their musical performance was associated with scrimage or wrestling p40 dualism expressed in these lines quoted from St Augustine. On the one hand, this powerful influence must be harnessed and utilized for worthy purposes; on the other hand, its sensual, carnal influence must be combated p44 St Basil used to go around and visit several churches on one night to hear the faithful sing Psalms, anf Gregory Nazianzen departed from Constantinople with regret at leaving behind the Psalm singing of the congregation p45 Justin, the widely traveled Christian philosopher (c150), described the order of the early Mass: readings from the Old and New Testaments were followed by a sermon by the "leader," offering of bread and wine, prayer of the faithful, the "kiss of peace," eucharistic (thanksgiving) prayer, and last of all, communion.. somewhat later type of th liturgy of the Mass is to be found in the Apostolic Constitutions, VIII, 5-15 p49 hymns became popular in other countries, although several synods were still opposed to them and preferred Biblical texts.. at the end of the third century the Romans abandoned the Greek liturgical language in favor of their own Latin p50 several subspecies of liturgies such as the Western-Syriac, with its important center in Jerusalem; the Egyptian, with its center in Alexandria; the Byzantine with Constantinople as its main center. The East-Syriac liturgy, popular in the extensive outlying territories, retained the Syriac language. The first large territory was Roman, but Roman liturgy was also employed in North Africa, with Carthage as its center. Large parts of lower Otaly (Magna Graecia), which, being early colonized by the Greeks, belonged to the Hellenistic circle of tradition and civilization, retained the Greek liturgy in itsoriginal form as it was taken from Jerusalem. Out of regard for the Italo-Greeks even Rome made some use of the Greek liturgy p51 Christian writers repeatedly mention the prevalence of ecstasy; Tertullian knows of songs which were the products of such a mental state and holds up these improvisations as characteristic of Christian prayer and music.. ofice of the cantor the Christian Church took over an old synagogal institution, and also in many cases probably employed musicians who had received their education in Jewish musical practice p53 Rule of St Benedict, but the Rules of St Paul and St Stephen also contain numerous paassages concerning the music of the Church. They require that the psalmody be executed by the choir "as if it were one voice; none of the singers should sing faster or louder than the others." Pope Gregory assured the final establishment of the schola_cantorum by setting aside two buildings near the Lateran.. Musical instruments were just as much feared as the pleasing tunes which heretics used with such astonishing success in their propaganda p56 Neo-Pythagorean number-symbolism.. four elements, four general directions, four seasons, four virtues, four kinds of beings (angels, demons, animated creatures, plants). Number seven is the source of the various sorts of tones, that is, the harmony of the seven planets, of which the seven strings of the lyre are the earthly image. The number eight, which is the double of four, represents all the harmonies p62 Gregory deserves the epithet of "the Great" as far as his work in practical organization.. Mysticism, superstition, and the love of the wonders take the place of logical demonstrations. He was also responsible for the neglect of Biblical research, which interested the christians of the fifth and sixth centuries to such a great extent, substituting forced allegorical explanations, and attaching to the Biblical stories sweeping moral conclusions alternating with grotesque tales of wonder p66 Irish Church assumed the nature of a missionary church and exerted considerable influence, in music as in other fields, on the Frankish, and even the northern Italian countries p67 Charlemagne himself was an enthusiastic lover of church music.. emperor's zeal in extablishing a true Gregorian practice caused the burning of all books of Ambrosian ritual to safeguard the unity of song and liturgy p71 original pre-Gregorian church song could not be entirely eradicated, and the curious fact remains that a large liturgical domain, comprising Gaul, western Germany, and parts of England, still showed elements of Byzantine origin sung in Greek.. Romantic nations continued to cultivate melodic curves which followed a consecutive, stepwise motion, while the Germanic plain-song dialect favored larger intervals, especially the third p76 The opposition of the musical instincts of faraway Franks and Gauls engendered another direct cause for the disintegration of Gregorian music, the tropes which speedily affected all the music of the Ordinary of the Mass. In place of the simple original melodies grew songs of an elaborate character, and even the new melodies were further elaborated by tropes.. Gregorian chant became the rather monotonous plain chant with organ accompaniment which reigned until the Benedictines of the Congregation of France, led by Gueranger, Pothier, and Mocquereau, started a genuine revival of Gregorian traditions p77 The medieval man heard in the psalmody, in the numerous vocalizations and jubilations of the alleluia, in the finely wrought melodic line and the truly basilicalike solidity of the cantus_planus, things we cannot evoke today for all this is a resurrected art.. beauty of Gregorian chant requires study and familiarization p80 The tradition of the antique citharoedia did not disappear with the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire. The numerous decrees and canons issued by various councils prohibiting profane cithara playing attest to its popularity. The cithara survived in western Europe far into the Middle Ages, partly because its construction was so similar to the traditional instrument of the Celtic bards. The ancient Celtic lyre, very popular in the early Middle Ages, became one of the chief musical instruments in the Carolignian period under the name of rotta, which was the Middle High German euivalent for the original Irish cot or cruit and the Welsh crwth p85 notation originated in the Orient, as we have seen to be the case, is evident from its name, neuma.. Isidore of Seville, the great polyhistor, appears to be ignorant of any means by which music can be preserved for posterity.. Guido's [d'arezzio] introduction of a system of four lines and four spaces (spatia) netween the lines, marked by clefs, put an end to all ambiguity.. first syllables of six lines of an ancient Sapphic hymn addresses to St John the Baptist.. whole tone between ut-re [later do-re], re-mi, fa-sol, sol-la, while that between mi and fa was a half tone p90 attempt to bring home to the unlettered people the reality of the chief events connected with the Christian religion was the point of departure for the medieval stage.. Nativity and Resurrection. The drama was short, reduced to its essentials, a simple paraphrase of the sacred text, carried out in a solemn and grave performance. Personal initiative soon claimed a larger place in the liturgic drama. The actors took liberties with sacred texts, reserved the Latin for the versicles, the responds, and the lessons, and carried on the dialogues in the vernacular.. plays had been enacted in front of the altar by priests and clerks, but with the development of the vernacular element the presentation was transfered from the altar to the portal of the church, and the place of clergymen was taken by laymen who soon formed confraternities of actors p91 entirely musical character of the liturgic plays is demonstrated by the fact that a great number of the manuscripts contain the music in notation p93 facial expression, gestures, and accentuations.. depict the mental state.. ancient libretti.. demanded explicitly that the lector off the Epistles, who usually took the role of Jesus, must have a soft voice, whereas the cleric who impersonated Judas must have a sharp and disagreeable voice. The voices of the angels were expected to be sweet, the women's voices were to have a "humble" quality.. "lamento aria" of Mary Magdalen, which goes back to the fifthe century.. principal aspect is that of the penitent.. very core of musical drama p104 One may come to the conclusion that troubadour art came from two principal sources: from music and thought of the Christian world, as expressed in sequences, tropes, hymns, and litanies, and from the secular songs pf roving poets such as goliards p113 principal role in the development of Italian poetry was played by St Francis and his disciples.. Giovani Bernardone.. religious poetry, the laude, usualy in the vernacular.. greatest merit of laude poetry consisted in its being the sole carrier of folk song and its spirit. Behind its feverish and hysterical exaggerations there emerges a sincere, warm humanity that has nothing of the stilted formality of courtly art p119 Under the protective power of the Hohenstaufen dynasty people felt free to express themselves about the Church, the pope, and the clergy, and they began to make a distinction between papacy and Christianity.. lyric genius whose importance in German art is comparable only to that of Goethe. Folk song, artistic minnesong, poetry, and polemic were all united in the sensitive soul of Walther von der Vogelweide (c1170-1230), who gave the words to everything that animated his time, wandering from court to court and singing in Bavarian dialect his poems set to music of his own composition. He stood removed from the learned soirit of the monasteries, the Latin poetry of the goliards, and the philosophy of the universities; he lived undisturbed and serene in the culture of his class p127 The Church insisted on its own songs, the Gregorian melodies had to be preserved intact; any other music, if there was to be more than one voice, was permitted inly in addition to the existing consecrated melodies. The original polyphonic incentive of the people slowly acquiesced and thus adapted itself too the musical art which was forced upon them p132 A typical Gothic trait is the repeated indenting of the linear sequence by reopening a completed action and starting it again in_medias_res.. old principle of the trope is revived here; while the tenor part holds the liturgic word (the mot) and music as cantus firmus, the contrapuntal parts declaim a paraphrase. Soon the troped accompanying parts become so imposing that they forced changes in the Gregorian cantus firmus.. motetus, designated in the begining the upper contrapuntal voice, which was evolving above and against the lower part, which "held on" (tenor, from the Latin teneo) to the mot; the third voice was called triplum, whence is derived our modern treble p171 new national humanism of Italy, breaking the hegemony of Franch culture, which heretofore had led the way, established anew the old Roman attitude toward "barbarians," the revised epithet being applied to the French and Germanic nations, to whose invasion the temporary decline of Italian culture, now restored, was credited p183 Italian and English influences softened the stern and strictly architectural qualities of the old motet, and the same melodiousness which appeared in the polyphonic song permeated the new versions.. between church music and courtly musical art. The motet belonged to neither.. Gothic desire for judiciously planned architecture was retained to a certain degree, resulting in a remarkably balanced form. The renewed interest in use of the cantus firmus necessitated the development of a real fundamental bass part, which was assumed by the so-called contratenor, lying underneath the tenor part p194 sober northerner, already fascinated by the majestic art of Obrecht, forgot the mystical polyphonic flow of his forebears to apply all his great technical wealth to the sublime, clear, well-defined and articulated, emotionally profound, and varied music which became the quintessence of Renaissance musical art. Josquin was the creator of the new Mass, the new motet, an the new chanson, and it was in these works that we see the approach of the a_capella ideal.. polyphonic style of their elders was their natural idiom, with which they were not willing to part; yet they could not ignore the song poetry, the well-shaped, rhythmical melodies that came streaming from Italy. They tried to stem the uncontrolled flow of music by rational means, such as articulation, symmetry, and motivic logic, and these innovations, together with a new relationship between text and music, were to determine the style of the generation that came on the scene with the birth of the new century p208 His favorite composer was Josquin Despres, whom he characterized as "master of the notes; others are mastered by them." This observation betrays again a keen musical sense and a sure judgement of art; Luther recognized in Josquin the sovereign genius to whom the subtleties of counterpoint were only a means of expression.. avoided the straits of experimentation, but also the puritanic primitiveness of Calvin, who banished even the simple accompaniment of hymns p220 If carried out according to older interpretations, the Tridentine reform would have affected adversely church music, which was not only a prodigious treasure of sacred art, but an art permeated by that humanistic spirit which characterized the liturgic reform. The freely flowing espressive polyphony, reacting to the most subtle rhythmical changes with a facility which our modern notation is not even capable of indicating, represented the ideal of church music. With the works of de Monte, Lassus, and Palestrina, vocal polyphony reached its greatest height, a perfect equilibrium between counterpoint and harmony, a style in which the individual parts move about in perfect freedom though always jealously obesrving the rights of harmony p299 In the courts of the Medici, the Gonzaga, the Sforza, the Este, as well as in the brilliant courts of such art-loving popes as Julius II and Leo X, music was an inalienable part of daily life.. singing in the homes, in the fields, in the churches.. no one seemed to find anything objectionable in music, although painters and poets were ridiculed in countless pamphlets. The polemical works were restricted to the scholars who wages the usual battle for the sanctity of old laws and customs, and to the adherents of Calvin who feared the seductive charm of music, attributed to it ever since the times of Orpheus p301 monkish theology of the early Middle Ages belittled women and considered them the most pliable tool in the hand of Satan. Knightly romansticism of the following era elevated womanhood to a sphere where it almost ceased to be a part of earthly life. It was left to the Renaissance to reinstate woman in human society and endow her with that ideal of beauty which the ancients saw in her p322 shadow of an overwhelming tragedy covers his works. Michelangelo's figures writhe, groan, and sigh. The desire to gain the transcendental spiritual regions.. every column suffers, every pillar groans under the heavy unbearable pressure. The individual forms are now subordinated to the form of the whole as servants, and beauty is no longer exoressed in mild and well-tuned harmonies, but in the eruptive power uprooted by passions... these dynamic qualities led to their most violent expression in the German baroque.. Greek painter who became the embodiment of the vey soul of baroque Spain, El Greco, created the most convincing symbols of this visionary mood. His often singularly distorted, over life-sized figures seem to come from another world. An almost expressionistic trait - the ignoring of the phenomena of reality - is discernible in them p328 We have already mentioned Loyola's Spiritual_Excercises, designed primarily to educate the members of the order and the Catholic aristocracy. We have pointed out the remarkably ptactical and psychological technique employed in the Excercises to inspire and excite emotion and understanding wherever these forces could be directed toward religious ends p341 Monteverdi has often been likened by modern writers to Wagner, but, if such analogies are at all possible, there seems to be a more intimate kinship between the musician and Michelangelo. They are kinsfolk in their titanic struggle with matter and form, in their ceaseless fight for the deliverance of human powers, in their tragical decrying of the aimlessness of the final aims of human life p343 Jesuits, recognizing almost immediately the great possibilities inherent in the new style, proved to be not only the sponsors of the dramma_recitativo, but pressed their seminaries and colleges into the service of the new musical theater. Many of the new composers were clerics and members of the papal choir p364 In our day "concert" may mean a recital.. earler centuries the term was synonymous with ensemble playing - "consort" in England; but - and this is what interests us particularly - in the seventeenth century it stood for a principle of styl, and as a principle it means not the co-operation but the opposition, the rivalry, the pitting against each other of musical bodies. Our finding of a new principle in the concerted music of the baroque period may be disputed, because from the echo of lakes and mountains, from the alternating choruses of Greek tragedy to the antiphons and responsoria of Gregorian music, and wherever tow people are singing or playing together, the concertante element is present. It was the baroque spirit, however, which, with its love of virtuosity, display, and ornamentation, caused this elemental principle to become the dominating factor in its music. Contrary to our modern purely instrumental usage, the concerted style took its flight from vocal music. The antiphonal multiple choirs of the Venetians gave the first impetus to its development p441 The Pythagorean interval doctrines of medieval theorists, making the third into a dissonance, did not prevent the gradual rise of a new conception of consonance based precisely on the proscribed third, and when Zarlino offered his harmonic system he only codified and equipped with a scientific apparatus a doctrine long in the universal use p473 Pietism, then, carried the disintegration to its completion, and so it happened that when the mature Bach arrived with his works calling for the most profound experience of Christian faith experienced in music, he stood alone, the belated messanger of a Protestantism which was no longer a living force. The musical Mass was still retained by the Protestants, but only the Kyrie and Gloria were set to music; such a Mass in the Lutheran service was called missa_brevis. The gigantic B minor Mass of Bach was originally a Lutheran missa_brevis, the master adding the remaining parts later. As the Mass itself was neither an original nor a sanctioned part of the liturgy in the Reformed Church pp489-90 second half of the seventeenth century numerous Bahs occupied almost all te musical positions in Weimar, Erfurt, and Eisenach, and if one of them resigned or died his place was immediately taken by a cousin or uncle.. Johann Sebastian was born in 1685. Having lost his parents at an early age, th boy's education was entrusted to an older brother, Johann Christoph (1671-1721), a pupil of Pachelbel p493 That he was conservative can be seen from the deliberations that accompanied the selection of a successor to Cantor Kuhnau. The progressive-minded burghers and municipal authorities had intended to fill the vacancy with one of the chief representatives of the new art, and it was only after their first and second choices, Telemann and Graupner, identified with the modern Italian style, were found to be not available, that they considered Bach p494 The music-lover is awe struck when entering the great palaces of his works, the plan na d design of which he can barely divine. He feels himself lost, because while he admires the geometric marvels of the severe architecture, he finds his whole being invaded by a tender poetry which emanates from the meticulously elaborated ornaments of the towering structures. But when he turns his attention to the source of this poetry he sees the walls and columns of an architecture whose order and logic seem to be inalterably constant. The critic is humbled by the unlimited resources and knowledge of the metire and searches feverishly for the outles through which pour broad stream of faith, longing, and exaltation. But he too is misled by the dual unity of absolute mathematics and absolute poetry p495 Bach's art rests in the traditions of the German Reformation, which reached its highest manifestation in him, in the midst of the era of the Englightenment. But it is not only this great musician's art which belongs to earlier times: his whole personality is much nearer to the man of the sventeenth century, the earnest German Protestant, unflinchingly faithful to the religion which governed his whole life p522 Handel, in the oratorio, gave England a national substitute for the opera. This oratorio was not humble church music, but entertainment of the musico-dramatic kind, though on a higher moral plane, close to and befitting English tatse. Handel glorified the rise of the free people of England in his oratorios. The people of Israel became the prototype for the English nation, the chosen people of God reincarnated in Christendom, and magnificent Psalms of thanksgiving and marches of victory in imperial baroque splendor proclaimed the grandiose consciousness of England's world-conquering power p534 slogan advocating a return to nature was in everyone's mouth, and everyone was seriously concerned in contrubiting to this end.The baroque had merely distorted nature whan it compelled trees to grow in prearranged shapes and when it regulated the flow and fall of water; the rococo went further, it created a nature-world of its own with lakes, little reed-covered huts, flocks of sheep, and stacks of hay.. became the antithesis of the grandiose pictorial-architectural character of the full baroque p636 Mozart did not imitate anyone or anything; the external appearance of music was but a means of expression to him, never technique. Technique and form are meaningless without content; his world of expression is inseperable from his form, and this is the secret of the perfection and unity of his music.. Mozart never created really new forms but by regarding the existing styles not as unities but as phenomena which contribute toward a general style, he created a universal all-inclusive style which stood above all subspecies p660 Don Giovanni is perhaps more overwhelming and the Magic Flute more profound, but Mozart's love of life fetes its most hamonious exuberance in The Marriage of Figaro (1786). Here he abandons himself without reserve to the whirl of life. There is no supreme hero in this opera to dictate the tempo of life. Don Giovanni sets the surrounding world to an intoxicating dance but the characters in Figaro are made to dance by the world in which they live. All the personalities of the opera fight and love on an equal footing. Each is a sculptured individual, yet there is a common resemblance - their common humanity. There is no sharp social difference to separate them, as in Cosi Fan Tutte, and their symmetry is not based on contrasts, as in the Magic Flute; they are placed on the stage as life would have thrown them there, the one central power around which they rally being "almighty love that creates and preserves everything" p669 The native opera flourished, then, with unabated vigor, yet in a few years the Italian regained every foot of territory ceded. The new Italian opera troupe wa led by Antonio Salieri (1750-1825), a discovery whome Gassmann brought back from Venice to Vienna, where he enjoyed a great reputation until the end of his life. An intriguer like his seventeenth-century compatriot Lully, this able musician was even accused of poisoning Mozart, a fact that can be as little substantiated as Lully's allegend murder of Cambert. There can be no question, however, of Salieri's malevolent interference witht he success of his Austrian colleagues. His fine musicianship told him to concentrate his malice on Mozart, whose lamentable fate was due in no small degree to the Italian's machinations. Arriving in Vienna at the time of the short-lived supremacy of the German comic opera, he lost no time composing a Singspiel, The Cimneysweep (1781), but on the whole the Viennese opera remained a minor adventure in the works of rhis universally admired musician, who was considered not only the leader of the resurrected Italian opera in Vienna, but the lineal successor of Gluck in the field of serene music drama p688 Justus Falckner, the first German minister ordained in America, complained that while the uncivilized Indians showed a distinct liking for music, the "melancholy, saturnine, stingy Quaker spirit" refused to be won over p737 Romanticism did not know classic measure and poise. The object of its artistic efforts was not man in his ideal isolation, for it always saw man in his relationship to infinite nature, to infinite space, with man as the center of sensation, as the focal point of all sentiment. Everything was animated by this relationship, and through it received life and meaning. Nature became revelation, the expression of human experience; thus romanticism abandoned itself to nature and lived wedded to it. Holderlin and Novalis, Byron and Shelley, Shubert and Weber, all sang and thought with nature, unlike the men of the Enlightenment, who loved in nature the idyllic only. But the romanticism was filled with nature, in which he immersed himself, feeling himself mystically, pantheistically one and the same with it p747 While the longing of a Chopin or Schumann is indescribable, Schubert experiences the absolute, the finished, the unsurpassable. In him the German song reached its pinnacle. There was, however, another Schubert, the composer of incomparable instrumental music, and this romanticist gave us the greatest, the richest post-Beethovenian symphonies, written with the sure hand of the classic symphonist although undeniably saturated with romantic elements. Such breadth, such mastery of symphonic thought, was with this exception denied to the romanticists, and only one composer in the whole succeeding period, Brahms, could match it p750 The mood that possessed Germany in the era of the Strum und Drang provided the atmosphere for the young Goethe and the young Schiller.. In every note and every word of Beethoven, from the time he first became articulate, this erect stature and proud majesty id soul spoke with convincing power to which all opposition in the matter with which he dealt must succumb; he formed it after his will and filled it with the contents of his soul. Thus was born a peculiar music, music that was the incarnation of strength and integrity p817 even when the romantic symphonist embarked on thematic development proper, he was usually satisfied with playing with the contours of the idea.. most conspicuous shortcoming in the romantic sonata and symphony is the lack of unity and cohesion. At certain points the symphony yawns and stagnates, and the best interpretation cannot prevent the sensation of broken continuity. Instead of offering a conflict, the dualistic sonata themes are merely antithetic, with the lyric second theme dominating, robbing the development section of its dramatic role p911 masterly arrangement of motives, a logic of harmonic and tonal relationship which made Verdi the true and worthy successor of the great classic opera composers and a formidable rival of Richard Wagner. The arrangement of motives should not be taken in the Wagnerian sence, for Verdi does not apply a system of leitmotives; he uses only certain recurring themes as Cherubini and Beethoven.. seventy-three-year-old composer broke his silence with Otello (1887), a work which bears the stamp of genius at its pinnacle. Beginning with the opening "storm chorus," a scene of such elemental power as modern opera never knew before or after, to the indescribably sad last song of Desdemona and the tragic end of Othello, this score is one throbbing story of the catastrophe of a great love. The old form of the opera, so contemptuously buried by Wagner and his apologists, returns here raised to undreamed heights. And it presents us with a miracle: another Othello, not Shakespeare's, but one that is its equal; drama and opera, independent entities, and each the peak of its species p944 restricted to the output of the era which we call romantic. This Russian music which we hear in the concert halls and opera houses recalls the wars of certain Oriental nations which fight their national battles with arms made in European factories, and Tsaikovsky reminds us of one of those Oriental captains who study European tactics throughout their lives #@# Wm Ted deBary E Asian Civ Harvard1988 0-674-22405-1 p1 conceptions of reverence, filiality, kingly virtue, propriety in the performance of ritual p5 Confucius appeals not only to noblesse oblige but to the sense of self-respect p8 kinship system, rather than through impersonal, bureaucratic procedures. It is a decentralized enfeoffment system, but in contrast to Western or Japanese "feudalism" it has a clear center. One cannot call it pluralistic or polycentric, because Mencius, like most thinkers of his day, assumes that the essential problem is how to reconstitute human society around a true center. Nevertheless he is equally concerned about the overconcentration of power p13 Hsun Tzu's concept of human freedom is to bing about such an ordering of desires and the mans of their satisfaction that the two are commensurate p19 amalgam of Confucian theory and Legalist practice.. oscillating between the pole of Tung Chung-shu's view of moderate reformism, with minimal state involvement in th economy, and th eopposite pole of Wang Mang's more radical interventions.. New Deal.. ever-normal granary.. literal translation from the Chinese model he adopted [Derk Bodde "Henry Wallace and the Ever-Normal Granary" Far Eastern Quarterly 5 8.1946 411-26].. professed humane purposes of a reformist state seeking to achieve economic balance ans price stability.. institutions of the Han state, which was impressive in its control of a populous and productive economy p22 Buddha arrived at his own diagnosis, that life inherently involves suffering and that suffering arises from desire or selfish craving p23 detachment, serenity of mind, calm resolution, courage, lofty aspiration, wisdom, compassion p31 Shotoku frankly confronts the contradiction between Confucian faith in human intelligence and virtue and, influenced by a measure of Buddhist skepticism.. subordinate their selfish interests and private views to the public good through a process of discussion.. "Matters should not be decided by one person alone" p33 "need of pulic discussions and the people's cooperation is due to the influences of the Taoist yin-yang reciprocal circulation principle, the Confucian principle of the Mean, and the Buddhist democratic equality" p53 Chu asserted three guiding principles of education.. "manifest bright virtue".. innate moral nature.. "renew the people".. "reform in the old".. "resting in the highest good".. proper mean p85 Chinese had persistently failed to achieve the system of universal [n just bur elite] schooling that the great Neo-Confucians, especially Chu Hsi, had insisted was the sine qua non of winning the minds and hearts of the people (originally, away from Buddhism and religious Taoism) p112 In fact secular education (as distinct from training for the religious life) was largely a Neo-confucian product, and even when the Buddhist engaged in it, whether for lay or clerical purposes, the content of such instruction was generally Confucian.. returning to the world with their higher religious wisdom, they readily adapted it to, and in effect largely accepted, the prevailing culture and pattern of lay life. THus their reaffirmation of concern for the world often took the form of showing how they accepted and promoted Confucian norms p114 chief resistance to Buddhism arose from the family on the ground that Buddhism was, allegedly, incompatible with Confucian family values.. self-discipline, group loyalty, frugality, self-denial and obedience #@# Solomon, Chinese Negotiating Behavior 1-878379-86-0 p174 The US negotiator should also be aware of the Chinese [ditto Japanese] tendency to wait until the very last minute to conclude an agreement on the expectation that a counterpart's interest in concluding a deal will lead him or her to compromise when faced with an imminent deadline #@# Arayama & Mourdoukoutas China Against Herself 1999 1-56720-245-4 p74 In Structuring for Success in China, and reported in ASIAWEEK [Shanor 95 p76, Cn Tdy] and ironic finding given China's immense population size: "This is the irony: in the world's most populous nation, where an abundance of inexpensive labor is one of the real competitive avdantages, the one human resource in greatest demand is also in least supply. There simply are not enough qualified managers, sales people, marketers, quality control personnel, and to a lesser degree, engineers and technicians" p115 price destruction and elimination of market rents would deprive capitalism of the resources and incentives to continue reproducing itself..To avoid the precipitation of such price destruction, China has a second option: to reform her economy in ways that will release the inherent abilities and capabilities of her people, so that they can pursue their own inventions and innovations #@# The new Confucianism in Beijing. De Bary, W.M. Theodore American Scholar; Spring95, Vol. 64 Issue 2, p175, 15p Last October, the month in which the annual celebration has been held of China's national day--marking the overthrow in 1911 of the Manchu dynasty--a major international congress was held to commemorate the 2545th anniversary of the [putative] birth of Confucius. One cannot gainsay the fact that Confucianism's attraction for Lee is his perception of it as an essentially conservative teaching, which could be supportive of the increasingly authoritarian, law-and-order style of politics that he is identified with in Singapore. Nor can we overlook the touch of anti-Westernism in Lee's espousal of Confucian social discipline as opposed to the decadent libertarianism and individualism he sees as undermining the moral fiber of the West and eating away at its social fabric.. Confucius most often came to inquire, to learn, and to discuss views with others. Lee declaimed from the pedestal of superior authority afforded him there in Beijing, and he left without waiting to hear what anyone else had to say.. Thus it is all the more striking that the current Communist leadership, and especially the octogenarians who once joined in "smashing the old Confucian curiosity shop," have so reversed their earlier historical course as not only to restore the former elegance of the Confucian temples but even to allow the installation of new, shiny images as well as pictorial representations of the most implausible, supernatural legends surrounding the life of the sage confabulated in later ages.. In 1984 a China Confucius Foundation was formally established.. Beijing in October of 1989 to celebrate Confucius's 2540th birthday. This latter conference was significant in several ways. It had been planned months before the student demonstrations broke out in May/June 1989, and a number of foreign scholars had agreed to attend. But after the bloody crackdown at T'ien-an men Square, many decided to boycott the meeting, lest their presence be taken to condone the repression of student and intellectual protest. (I myself decided to go, but I changed the topic of my talk to "The Confucian Tradition of Public Dissent," for which I was thanked personally by Chinese colleagues who appreciated my broaching the subject of dissent in that forum when they themselves could not.) .. Another key point is the "ancient" and "brilliant" idea of "harmony making for prosperity." No doubt Confucius and the Confucians would have subscribed to this idea, though the Master himself chose to underscore the idea that peace and harmony depended on trust and confidence in the ruler, which could only be won by moral example, humane governance, and reliance on consensual institutions (the rites).. Understood as a demand for compliance with or conformity to direction from above, such "harmony" today might yield the stability needed for economic progress, but hardly the fiduciary, consensual society Confucius characterized as "Harmony without conformity" (ho erh pu t'ung), much less the Chinese-type civil society Mencius advocated, with a class of activist Confucian officials constantly pressing the ruler to listen to the people and enact humane policies of benefit to them.. From a strict Maoist point of view, there is nothing new in this most recent attack on bourgeois liberalism as the alien virus infecting rebellious Chinese intellectuals.. Still more ominous, however, is the general lapse of society into a pervasive climate of aggressive self-seeking and corruption, as the burgeoning economy makes its advances accompanied by graft and collusion.. At several stages of Chinese history, commerce, industry, and a nascent middle class have grown to significant proportions, but the translation of these into a civil infrastructure has been handicapped by state-imposed limitations and stultified by bureaucratic complications. Again and again the Chinese have shown their entrepreneurial aptitude and skills whenever and wherever conditions were conducive to them (especially overseas and under the protection of Western law, beyond the reach of Chinese rule). Yet in the long run of Chinese history these capacities and tendencies have not prevailed in the homeland. The continuing dominance of a centralized bureaucratic state in China has frustrated what Westerners tend to think of as a normal sequence of economic, social, and cultural development.. certain Confucian traditions may have survived in the home, primarily in connection with family life. These traditions are often characterized by a certain reciprocity, mutual support, and give--and take within the family, rarely taken into account by the stereotypical renderings of Confucianism as an authoritarian, "feudal" system.. If, however, we are serious about the study of Confucianism, we must recognize that Confucius and his later mulae, as mechanical and meaningless as the failed slogans of Maoism.. public service. Mencius said he did not like to appear argumentative, but his moral concerns compelled him to speak to difficult pressing issues. Thus Mencius had much to say about education, human welfare, economic and social justice, the legitimacy or non-legitimacy of profit seeking, political remonstrance, etc. So too in our own case, these pressing, shared concerns might warrant a series of conferences focussing on such current issues as human rights, in a spirit of mutual respect and on the basis of shared multicultural concerns. #@# Sorman Empire of Lies Encounter 2008 p8 When Wuer Kaixi [Muslim Xinjiang Uigur Uerkesh Daolet] was "commanding" his troops at Tienanmen Square, Alain Peyrefitte shared the communsits' view and thought it appropriate to tell his French readers that Kaixi "was not Chinese" p44 90 percent of the Taiwanese who invest in Communist China keep a second wife who gets a monthly allowance and low rent p59 every uprising in contemporary China has been against COnfucianism p60 from 1898 onward, the state and the provinces took over Daoist, Buddhist and Confucian temples p84 Very few children come back to take care of their parents.. Fathers go to work in far-off places and never return. Unable to raise their children alone, mothers emigrate in turn, or commit suicide by swallowing cheap pesticide.. As soon as these children can, they, too, will join p101 Confucianism idealizes authority, and looks down on trade. A disciple of Confucius aspires only to public office.. Daoist, like most CHinese entrepreneurss, and is open to the world p103 Chinese growth is higher than what it was in EUrope at a comparable stage, because CHina has particularly low agricultural productivity, whereas her factories have benefited from Western technology p109 A precarious legal system, shaky intellectual property rights, unpredictable taxation, and the Party's own capriciousness have created a climate of instability where everyone is out to make a fast buck and invest the proceeds abroad p147 The Party's second argument in defense of its gradualist, start-at-the-grassroots approach is that the Chinese are still not responsible citizens. This attitude of condescension is the reason for the elaborate planning and zealous rhetoric that usually accompany village elections. The CHinese were capable of voting in 1913 and 1954, so why do they need the Party to instruct them in 2005? p167 Capital punishment in CHina is not only arbitrary but also lucrative. Dead men make some people rich. Just before the execution - not after - the condemned person's vital organs are removed and then sold.. hastily stitched together before being shot or incinerated p204 middle path between liberalism and Marxism. By subscribing to Confucianism, the neo-Confucians can criticize the PArty in relative safety, criticize corruption - all the Chinese do - and reject liberalism as foreign. The middle path has the advantage of letting the new mandarins bypass democracy - which would confer power on uneducated rustics, scorned by academics and apparatchiks alike p207 CHinese civilization is based on harmony not progress p212 Kissiger, who fears that CHinese elections would bring to power a nationalist party far more dangerous p219 China can be better compared with Europe as a whole rather than with any single country p222 It is possible to read China's history as an endless conflict between Daoist rebels and Confucian bureaucrats p230 Asian democrats want democracy becaue is is efficient, though some in the West persist in the belief that democracy is not compatible with "asian values" p236 Is Jiang Rong a Chinese Solzhenitsyn? His book is both a legend of the [Uigur Turk?] wolves of the steppes and an exultation of the wolf as a totem of freedom. It is a eulogy of the nomadic culture as against the sedentary peasant tradition. The clash between these two conceptions of man, the wolf and the dragon, is the true story of CHina, he says. #@# Coming CHina Wars Navarrro FT Pearson 2007 p25 China accounts for two thirds of all the worlds pirated and counterfeited goods p43 As Pfizer's VP of GLobal Security has noted: "Let's be practical here. It won't get much better until CHina has its own intellectual property to protect." p72 Chinese bilateral deals have involved the sale of weapons of mass destruction - including highly sophisticated ballistic missiles in return for oil. In other cases, these deals have involved the exchange of nuclear resources and technology for oil.. CHina has repeatedly promised that in exchange for oil, other resources, or market access, it will use its U.N. veto as a tool to protect dictators and rogue states from any U.N. Sanctions p89 one of the world'slargest consumers of metals, minerals, lumber, and other raw materials p97 Both Africa and Latin America are playing an ever-increasingly important role in Beijing's strategy of the "diplomatic encirclement" of Taiwan p111 No single country plays more of a key role than CHina in the global production, transportation, and distribution of all four illegal hard drugs and their "precursor chemicals" p174 Xinjiang "leads the nation in executions for state security 'crimes'" p175 Rather than being pacified or tamed by the growing Han population, the Uighurs are just becoming more and more radicalized p180 Economically, however, the biggest long-term implication of the one-child policy has been a financially perverse demographic skew to China's population. In particular, the working-age population will be peaking somewhere around 2010.After that, there will be fewer and fewer workers to suppor tmore and more retirees. p188 over the next several decades, the most serious HIV crises will beunfolding with brute force and far-reaching global economic implications in three powerhouse nations of Eurasia - India, Russia, and China #@# Luce In SPite of the Gods Doubleday 2007 p34 Having kept a straight face in the late 1990s while it profited from the West's paranoia about the Y2K computer bug, which provided the liftoff for India's software companies, India's IT and IT-enabled sector also reached a visibility that was changing the face of the country's urban economy p107 But over time the anti-caste bhakti movememnts gradually morphed into new castes themselves and were quietly slotted into the traditional hierarchy. Hinduism has a way of pacifying and absorbing challengers p122 It has taken India's lower-caste leaders decades of practice to master the complexities of Indian democracy. Now they are better at it than anyone else. In Indian politics, lower-caste voters have an advantage that is of little help in other spheres of life: the sheer weight of their numbers. About half of India's population is llower caste, in one form or another p125 Indian scholars call this "Sanskritization," in reference to the classical language that was the preserve of the Brahmins. The term describes a trend in which the lower orders are now copying the culture if the upper orders by following the same gods, attending the same temples, and celebrating the same festivals p283 something fundamental about India's character that Americans and thers are continually required to relearn. Foreign diplomats sometimes barely get past the opening remarks if their Indian counterparts do not feel satisfied they will be treated with exceptional respect. At times, India's diplomats appear to mind more about ettiquette that they do about substance. India wants constantly to be reminded how important it is, and to be complimented on the profundity of its civilization #@# Greenfed CHina Syndrome Harper Collins 2006 p83 For these officials who sit in the control rooms of this information-making machinery, the data they receive is usually accurate and reliable; the officials just very seldom bother to tell the people - anything. The Communist Party runs two communication systems, each with a very different mission. One collects data and sends it up the bureaucratic hierarchy. This information is supposed to be accurate, objective, and reliable. Its quality and quantityincrease according to how high a position an official occupies. But no matter who is receiving this information, it can be passed on only one way: upward. Otherwise, it must be kept secret. For example, during the nationwide student demonstrations in 1989, state news agency reporters throughout the country were writing thorough accounts of local student activities that were sent to the top leaders in Beijing. As was later revealed in The_Tienanmen_Papers, based on a cache of government documents smuggled to the West and published in 2001,this information was remarkably accurate. The sense of crisis that gripped the Chinese leadership compund of Zhongnanhai during the student protests at Tienanmen was based to a great extent on the scope of the unrest nationally p141 "I know firsthand what an emerging virus outbreak looks like," [WHO Exec Dir Cmxbl Dis David] Heymann has said. "It's not a pleasant experience. But we've learned taht if you do everything you can - throw everything you can at it; get cooperation from the media, the government, from international agencies; you educate the people quickly; get infection control and screening in place and on the ground - then you have a chanceto stop one of these things before it becomes pandemic. But you have to act fast." p328 the WHO would never be able to get a handle on this plague: the Chinese government did understand the severity of the issue but was still covering it up, and the world's health could be in jeopardy. p348 Lacking a fast and accurate diagnostic test, the ministry of Health decided to use fever as tge screening criterion for SARS, and within days it had set up perhaps the most elaborate and most intricate fever-detection system in the history of the world. You could not walk in or out of a bank, government office, train station, or offic ebuilding without being thermal-scanned. If you were running a efevr and it didn't subside after a few minutes of waiting and a second test, this one possibly with ahandheld thermometer, then you would be rushed off in a locked ambulance to secure quarantine for up to twenty-one days p396 The vast majority of these cases were fatal, unless Tamiflu was quickly administered. So far, however, the virus was not proving as contagious as human influenzas. The great risk was that a carrier infected with a common case of human flu would also become dosed with an H5N1 avian flu. THese two RNA viruses swirling around in a person's respiratory system could swap genes and reassort into a highly ocntagious, fatal flu. THis was the slate-wiper scenario. / No one knew the odds of this type of reassortment happening. It would be random, those genetic tumblers whirling, the future of humanity resting on each result. Guan Yi had done significant workk showing that avian flus were already reombining in pigs with porcine influenzas. And pigs were also known as carriers of human flu viruses. "It's only a matter of time," Guan Yi would repeat. / An H5N1 that achieves widespread human-to-human transmission became every virologist's greatest nigtmare, and as winter gave way to spring and summer, Guan Yi and Malik Peiris and the World Health Organization and the American CDC would turn their attention to Vietnam, Thailand, and, once again, China p400 "Could this be history repeating itself?" I asked. Say the CHinese get a new virus first, and it proves as fatal as smallpox when introduced into a new gene pool. Hundreds of millions die in a horrible repeat of the Black Death. Won't the surviving, immune CHinese then have an evolutionary advantage over the rest of the world? Couldn't a virus be, in effect, a terrible first stpe toward world domination? / Peiris shook his head at this fantastic scenario. I was in the realm of scence fiction, he quickly pointed out. "A new virus," he explained, "will be on aplane and everywhere on earth within a day or two of emerging, especially if it emerges, as this one has appeared to, in SOuthern CHina." #@# Jaspers Philos&World 1963 Regnery 0-89526-757-8 p126 origin of the world is conceived along the lines of events in the world, of living, of material, intellectual, logical processes.. one thing in common: their proponents seem to know what happened. They operate with forces, gods, substances, categories, whose own source is not further inquired into.. creation from nothingness.. time itself has only been created along with everything else p129 Constructions of mathematical possibilities are as speculatie and deceptive as the old, conceptual ones of metaphysics, and equally tempting p136 whether or not there is immortality.. Simple-mindedness and the most learned scholarship, cringing fear, blissful expectancy, and calm - all of them are equal in their factual ignorance p139 "Death, the brother of Sleep," remains a symbol. Without concepts, we finite creatures feel as in a bottomless void.. Socrates unfolds his images from the assurance of immortality and calls it "a fully justified faith worthy that we venture to devote ouselves to it. For the venture is beautiful, and peace of mind demands such ideas, which work like magic spells; this is why I tarry with this imagined portrayal." p142 People of other faiths were called heathens.. You do not resist violence. Martyrdom is truth p143 They sought to find Christian elements in the basic forms of the Chinese religion, so as to preache their own in Chinese garb - as it were to found a Chinese Christianity, just as there had once [?] been a Hellenistic one. The policy-makers of the Vatican blocked this way and put a stop to the creative Jesuit mission. But in the course of it the Jesuits had accomplished much in China, being the first to explore this religious reality at the source and to study the texts of its sacred books p144 These Biblically based religions include not only the Christian ones and the Jewish one, but Islam as well. The spirit of exclusiveness gives them all a common state of mind p145 Chinese religious world to a department store on which the individual was offered all sorts of religious possibilites.. Buddhist bonzes, to Taoist wizards, or to Confucian mandarins.. Similar conditions prevailed in the centuries of late Antiquity, when so many religions ment on the soil of the Roman Empire p147 But Luther, in his treatise "On the Jews and their Lies,".. "synagogues be set afire.. driven them out of the country".. What Hitler has done, Luther had counseled - except for the direct killing in gas chambers p148 A sense of superiority makes it sem not really worth our while to convert the foreigner to our truth, since his inferiority will not permit him to understand it anyway p296 National Socialism meant the most radical break in human communication; it also meant that man ceased to be himself. It became clear that the rupture of communication in favor od self-willed violence will always pose a threat to personal existence and the real danger of losing ourselves. Philosophizing, on the other hand, means that we work on the conditions that may make universal communcation possible p299 conservative liberalism and oppositionism of both families, my mother's as well as my father's, and their inclination to achieve democracy by way of aristocracy #@# Dilworth, Philosophy in World Perspective, Yale, 1989, ad_passitum [Numbers in brackets might be useful in multidimensional scaling] Philosophy Perspective Reality Method Principle Thales Objective[2] Substrative[2] Logistic[2] Creative[1] Anaximander Objective Substrative Agonistic[1] Comprehensive[2] Anaximenes Objective Substrative Logistic Elemental[3] Pythagoras Diaphanic[3] Substrative Dialectical[3] Comprehensive Parmenides Diaphanic Noumenal[3] Logistic Elemental Xenophanes Personal[1] Essential[4] Agonistic Reflexive[4] Heraclitus Diaphanic Substrative Agonistic Comprehensive Empedocles Diaphanic Substrative Agonistic Elemental Anaxagoras Objective Substrative Logistic Reflexive Sophists Personal Existential[1] Agonistic Creative Democritus Objective Substrative Logistic Elemental Plato Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Comprehensive Aristotle Disciplinary[4] Essential Synoptic[4] Reflexive Skeptics Objective Existential Agonistic Elemental Epicureans Objective Substrative Logistic Creative Stoics Objective Substrative Dialectical Reflexive Plotinus Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Elemental Old Testament Diaphanic Essential Dialectical Creative New Testament Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Creative Koran Diaphanic Noumenal Agonistic Creative Augustine Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Creative Mo Tzu Personal Substrative Logistic Comprehensive Confucius Diaphanic Essential Agonistic Comprehensive Mencius Diaphanic Essential Agonistic Elemental Hsun Tzu Objective Essential Agonistic Creative I Ching Diaphanic Essential Dialectical Comprehensive Tsou Yen Objective Essential Dialectical Comprehensive Tung Chung-shu Diaphanic Essential Dialectical Comprehensive Hinduism Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Elemental Buddhism Zen Diaphanic Existential Agonistic Elemental BuddhPureLand Diaphanic Noumenal Agonistic Elemental Bacon Objective Substrative Logistic Reflexive Descartes Personal Essential Logistic Reflexive Spinoza Objective Noumenal Logistic Reflexive Berkeley Diaphanic Existential Agonistic Creative Hume Objective Existential Logistic Elemental Kant Disciplinary Noumenal Synoptic Reflexive Pierce Objective Essentialist Synoptic Reflexive Husserl Disciplinary Essentialist Logistic Reflexive Fichte Disciplinary Noumenal Dialectical Reflexive Schelling Diaphanic Noumenal Dialectical Elemental Hegel Diaphanic Essentialist Dialectical Reflexive Marx Objective Substrative Dialectical Creative Schopenhauer Diaphanic Substrative Synoptic Elemental Kierkegaard Personal Noumenal Agonistic Creative Nietzsche Personal Substrative Agonistic Elemental Freud Objective Substrative Agonistic Elemental Derrida Objective Substrative Agonistic Creative Wittgenstein Objective Existential Agonistic Elemental Satre Personal Existential Dialectical Creative Merleau-Ponty Personal Existential Dialectical Creative Jaspers Diaphanic Existential Agonistic Creative Heidegger Diaphanic Essentialist Dialectical Creative Russell Objective Existential Logistic Elemental Bradley Disciplinary Existential Dialectical Comprehensive Whitehead Disciplinary Existential Dialectical Creative Bergson Diaphanic Substrative Dialectical Creative James Personal Existential Synoptic Creative Dewey Disciplinary Essetialist Synoptic Creative Royce Diaphanic Essentialist Dialectical Reflexive Santayana Objective Substrative Logistic Elemental #@# Isaiah Berlin Proper Study Mankind Farrar 2000 p13 If your desire to save mankind is serious, you must harden your heart, and not reckon the cost. The answer to this was given more than a century ago by the Russian radical Alexander Herzen. In his essay From_the Other_Shore, which is in effect an obituary notice of the revolutions of 1848, he said that a new form of human sacrifice had arisen in his time - of living human beings on the altars of abstraction p189 But principally it seems to me to spring from a desire to resign our responsibility, to cease from judging, provided we ourselves are not judged and, above all, are not compelled to judge ourselves; from a desire to flee for refuge to some vast amoral, impersonal, monolithic whole - nature, or history, or class, or race, or the 'harsh realities of our time', or the irresistible evolution of the social structure - that will absorb and integrate us into its limitless, indifferent, neutral texture p192 Yet this is both surprising and dangerous. Surprising because there has, perhaps, been no time in modern history when so large a number of human beings, in both the East and the West, have had their notions, and indeed their lives, so deeply altered, and in some cases violently upset, by fanatically held social and political doctrines. Dangerous, because when ideas are neglected by those who ought to attend to them - that is ton say, those who have been trained to think critically about ideas - they sometimes acquire an unchecked momentum and an irresistible power over multitudes if men that may grow too violent to be affected by rational criticism p211 Ascetic self-denial may be a source of integrity or serenity and spiritual strength, but it is difficult to see how it can be called an enlargement of lierty p240 The extent of a man's, or a people's, liberty to choose to live as he or they desire must be weighed against the claims of many other values, of which equality, or justice, or happiness, or security, or public order are perhaps the most obvious examples p240-1 That we cannot have everything is a necessary, not a contingent, truth. Burke's plea for the constant need to compensate, to reconcile, to balance.. may madden those who seek for final solutions and single, all-embracing systems, guaranteed to be eternal p241 monism, and faith in a single criterion, has always proved a deep source of satisfaction both to the intellect and to the emotions.. Pluralism, with the measure of 'negative' liberty that it entails, seems to me a truer and more humane ideal than the goals of those who seek in the great disciplined, authoritarian structures the ideal of 'positive' self-mastery by classes, or people, or the whole of mankind p245 Such influential writers as Voltaire, d'Alembert and Condorcet believed that development of the arts and sciences was the most powerful human weapon in attaining these ends, and the sharpest weapon in the fight against ignorance, superstition, fanaticisim, oppression and barbarism, which crippled human effort and frustrated men's search for truth and rational self-direction. Rousseau and Mably believed, on the contrary, that the institutions of civilisation were themselves a major factor in the corruption of men and their alienation from nature, from simplicity, purity of heart and the life of natural justice, social equality and spontaneous human feelings; artificial man had imprisoned, enslaved and ruined modern man p249 Hamann's theses rested on the conviction that all truth is particular.. Only love - for a person or an object - can reveal the true nature of anything.. [vs] symbols too general to be close to reality p251 Hamann is first in the line of thinkers who accuse rationalism and scientism of using analysis to distort reality: He is followed by Herder, Jacobi, Moser, who were influencedby Shaftesbury, Young and Burke's anti-intellectualist diatribes, and they, in turn, were echoed by romantic writers in many lands p306 [Machiavelli] description of methods of realising his single end: the classical, humanistic and patriotic vision that dominates him.. employ terroris or kindness, as the case dictates. Severity is usually more effective, but humanity, in some situations, brings better fruit. You may excite fear but not hatred, for hatred will destroy you in the end. It is best to keep men poor and on a permanent war footing, for this will be an antidote to the two great enemies of active obedience - ambition and boredom.. Competition - divisions between classes - in a society is desirable, for it generates energy and ambition to the right degree. Religion must be promoted even though it may be false, provided it is of a kind which preserves social solidarity and promotes manly virtues, as Christianity has historically failed to do.. confer benefit.. yourself; but if dirty work is to be done, let others do it.. Do what you must.. represent it as a special favour.. drastic, do it in one fell swoop, not in agonising stages.. victorious generals are best got rid of, otherwise they may get rid of you.. not break your own laws, for that destroys confidence.. Success creates more devotion than an amiable character p401 Populism may often have taken reactionary forms and fed the stream of aggressive nationalism; but the form in which Herder held it was democratic and peaceful, not only anti-dynastic and anti-elitit, but deeply anti-political, directed against organised power, whether of nations, classes, races, or parties p436 There is a line among the fragments of the Greek poet Archilochus which says: "THe fox knows many things, but the hedgehog knows one big thing" [alopex, echinos].. For there exists a great chasm between those, on one side, who relate everything to a single central vision, one system, less or more coherent or articulate, in terms of which they understand, think and feel - a single, universal, organising principle in term sof which alone all that they are and say has significance - and, on the other side, whose who pursue many ends, often unrelated and even contradictory p437 Plato, Lucretius, Pascal, Hegel, Dostoevsky, Nietzsche, Ibsen, Proust are, in varying degrees, hedgehogs; Herodotus, Aristotle, Montaigne, Erasmus, Moliere, Goethe, Pushkin, Balzac, Joyce are foxes.. Dostoevsky's celebrated speech about pushkin has, for all its eloquence and depth of feeling, seldom been considered by any perceptive reader to cast light on the genius of Pushkin, but rather on that of Dostoevsky himself, precisely because it perversely represents Pushkin - an arch-fox, the greatest in the nineteenth century - as being similar to Dostoevsky, who is nothing if not a hedgehog p483 Tolstoy all hi slife fought against open obscurantism and artificial repression of the desire for knowledge; his harshest words were directed against those Russian statesmen and publicists in the last quarter of the nineteenth century - Pobedonostsev and his friends and minions - who practised precisely these maxims of the great Catholic reactionary [Maistre]. The author of War and Peace plainly hated the Jesuits, and particularly detested their success in converting Russian ladies of fashion during Alexander's reign p518 Herzen [Florovsky's anti-Hegel] is neither consistent nor systematic.. dwellings for free men cannot be constructed out of the stones of a prison.. Patience and gradualism - not the haste and violence of a Peter the Greate - can alone bring about a permanent transformation p519 Herzen uses a similar reduction ad absurdum.. His sense of reality is too strong. For all his efforts, and the efforts of his socialist friends, he cannot deceive himself entirely. He oscillates between pessimism and optimism, scepticism and suspicion of his own scepticism, and is kept morally alive only by his hatred of all arbitrariness, all mediocrity as such - in particular by his inability to compromise in any degree with either the brutality of reactionaries or the hypocrisy of bourgeois liberals. He is preserved by this, buoyed up by his belief that such evils will destroy themselves, by his love for his children and his devoted friends, and by his unquenchable delight in the variety of life and the comedy of human character p598 The conception of the political life of the nation as the expression of this collective will is the essense of political romanticism - that is, nationalism. Let me repeat once again that even though nationalism seems to be in the first place to be a response to a wound inflicted upon society, this, although it is a necessary, is not a sufficient cause of national self-assertion... traumatic effect of the violent and rapid modernisation imposed by Peter the Great, and on a smaller scale by Frederick the Great p603 THe idea of a single, scientifically organised world system governed by reason was the heart of the programme of the Enlightenment p604 no political movement today, at any rate outside the Western world, seems likely to succeed unless it allies itself to national sentiment.. need for greater attention to this particular offshoot of the romantic revolt, whichhaas decisively affected our world p617 His nature posseses a dimension of depth - and a corresponding sense of tragic possibilities - which Roosevelt's light-hearted genius instinctively passed by.. Churchill is acquainted with darkness as well as light. Like all inhabitants of inner worlds, and even transient visitors to them, he gives evidence of seasons of agonised brooding and slow recovery. Roosevelt might havespoken of sweat and blood, but when CHurchill offered his people tears, he spoke a word which might have been uttered by Lincoln or Mazzini or Cromwell, but not by Roosevelt, great-hearted, generous and perceptive as he was #@# Plato's Impossible Polity [Plato's Republic,2005, Rosen, Yale] Brann, Eva Claremont Review of Books v. 6 no. 3 (Summer 2006) p. 52-3 PLATO'S REPUBLIC, STANLEY ROSEN SAYS at the beginning of his book, is "both excessively familiar and inexhaustibly mysterious.".. More than once Rosen invokes Nietzsche, who understood Socrates as an anti-tragic goblin, ready to undermine human gravity in the name of a willful rationality.. Plato fully understands all the flaws of the perfectly just city to the construction of which the first half of the Republic is devoted. Thus the inside teaching is that extremism, the attempt to institute ideal justice on earth, will end in disastrous injustice, for this city is extremely coercive.. When Karl Popper, Plato's most effective modern opponent, accuses Plato of the latter, he is, Rosen says, correct, though he is blind to the reason why the theoretically best life must ever be the deadly enemy of the good or even the livable life, namely that truth is necessarily intolerant of perceived untruth.. PLATOS OWN life, he points out, countermands the lesson taught by his teacher. In the face of his own Socrates' brutally clear warning, he succumbed to the temptation of bringing theory into practical politics in his ill-fated ventures at the Syracusan tyrant's court.. My preference for the way to lead people into the Republic is through musingly squishy analogical thinking. But Stanley Rosen is probably incapable of anything but intellectual hard-hitting. Thus he offers a severe but utterly clear perspective on Plato's Socrates, which is full of interest and, to its glory, totally devoid of jargon. #@# Mussolini's Brain Trust Moss, Myra Claremont Review of Books v. 6 no. 2 (Spring 2006) p. 68-9 [Mussolini's intellectuals,2005; Gregor, A. James; Princeton University Press] neither Giovanni Gentile, who was after all the self-proclaimed philosopher of fascism, nor most of the other fascist thinkers covered in this book, ever believed in the German idea of racial inferiority.. neo-Hegelianism developed by the philosopher of fascism himself, Giovanni Gentile, and by his student, Ugo Spirito.. during the 1920s British and European thinkers considered Gentile the most brilliant philosopher of education on the continent and the principal spokesman for Italian neo-Hegelianism.. they proposed, contrary to Marx and to the positivists, an idealist metaphysics.. In their rebellion against Kantian and Enlightenment intellectual dualisms, the Italian neo-Hegelians wanted to unify what they believed that Kant had put asunder--thought, will, feeling; subject and object; man and nature; ought and is, citizen and state; nature and God; spirit and matter.. Rebellion against the state in the name of abstract, permanent ideals that supposedly existed independently of human beings, or on the ground of natural rights, was never justifiable. Nevertheless, for fascism, reform or even revolution understood in terms of the dialectical progress of human nature and values should occur continually inside the state #@# Popper Selections, Princeton, 1985 p28 [Rationalism 1958] Thales who founded the new tradition of freedom - based upon a new relation between master and pupil - and who thus created a new type of school, utterly different from the Pythagorean school. He seems to have been able to tolerate criticism. And what is more, he seems to have created the tradition that one aought to tolrate criticism p84 [Epistemology 1973] Claude Bernard was very wise when he wrote: 'Those who have an excessive faith on their ideas are not well fitted to make discoveries'.. Francis Bacon was rightly worried about the fact that our theories may prejudice pur observations p95 [Definitions 1945] very characteristic of one of the prejudices which we owe to Aristotle, of the prejudice that language canbe made more precise by the use of definitions p99 It was Kant's criticism of all attempts to prove the existence of God which led to the romantic reaction of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. THe new tendency is to discard proofs, and with them, anykind of rational argument p116 [Induction 1953, 1974] More precisely, no theory of knowledge should attempt to explain why we are successful in our attempts to explain things p128 [Demarcation 1974] could possibly be predicted or excluded by Freud's theory; the theory was compatible with everything that could happen - even without any special immunization treatment. This while Marxism became nonscientific by its adoption of an immunizing strategy, psychoanalysis was immune to start with, and remained so. In contrast, most physical theories are pretty free of immunizing tactics and highly falsifiable tostart with. As a rule, they exclude an infinity of conceivable possibilities p140 [Sci Meth 1934] Once a hypotheis has been proposed and tested, and has proved its mettle, it may not be allowed to drop out without 'good reason'. A 'good reason' may be, for instance: replacememt of the hypothesis by another which is better testable; or the falsification of one of these consequences of the hypothesis p151 [Falsification 1934] If accepted basic statements contradict a theory, then we take them as providing sufficient grounds for its falsification only if they corroborate a falsifying hypothesis at the same time p185 [Truth and Approximation to Truth 1960] So one great advantage of the theory of objective or absolute truth is that it allows us to say - with Xenophanes - that we search for truth, but may not know whenwe have found it; that we search for truth, but are nevertheless guided by the idea of truth as a regulativ principle (as Kant or Peirce might have said); and that though there are no general criteria by which we recognize truth - except perhaps tautological truth - there is somehting like criteria of progress towards the truth p223 [Realism 1970] Denying realism amounts to megalomania (the most widespread occupational disease of the professional philosopher) p261 [Indeterminism 1965] If determinism is true, then the world is a perfectly running flawless clock, including all clouds, all organisms, all animals, and all men. If, on the other hand, Peirce's or Heisenberg's or some other form of indeterminism is true, then sheer chance plays a major role in our physical world. But is chance really more satisfactory than determinism? p303 [Historicism 1936] That Mill should seriously discuss the question whether 'the phenomena of human society' revolve 'in an orbit' or whether they move, progressively, in 'a trajectory' [towards equilibrium]is in keeping with this fundamental confusion between laws and trends, as well as with the holistic idea that society can 'move' as a whole - say, like a planet p308 [Piecemeal 1944] only a minority of social institutions are consciously designed while the vast majority have just 'grown', as the undesigned results of human interactions p336 [Marx 1945] If we plan too much, if we give too much power to the state, then freedom will be lost, and that will be the end of planning p337 direct result of his sociological method; of his economic historicism.. united in one grandiose philosophical system, comparable or even superior to the holistic systems of Plato or Hegel.. Marx was the last of the great holistic system builders. We should take care to leave it at that, and not to replace his by anothe rGreat System. What we need is not holism. It is piecemeal social engineering. p340 [Individualism 1945] Pericles himself made it clear that the laws must guarantee equal justice 'to all alike in their private disputes'; but he went further. We do not feel called upon', he said, 'to nag at our neighbour of he chooses to go his own wy.' (Compare this with Plato's remark that the state does not produce men 'for the purpose of letting them loose, each to go his own way..') Pericles insists that this individualism must be linked with altruism: 'We are taught.. never to forget that we must protect the injured'; and his speech culminates in a description of the young Athenian who grows up 'to a happy versatility, and self-reliance' p344 Because of his radical collectivism, Plato is not even interested in those problemswhich men usually call the pproblems of justice, that is to say, in the impartial weighing of the contesting claims of individuals p366-7 [Ag Socgy Knlg 1945] Plato's will to arrest change, combined with Marx's doctrine of its inevitablity, yield, as a kind of Hegelian 'synthesis', the demand that sinc eit cannot be entirely arrested, change should at least be 'planned', and controlled by the state, whose power is to be vastly extended p368 'activist' theory of knowledge. In connection with it, Kant gave up the untenable ideal of a science which is free from any kind of presuppositions.. He made it quite clear that we cannot start from nothing, and that we have to approach our task equipped with a system of presuppositions which we hold without having tested them by the empirical methods of science; such a system may be called a 'categorical apparatus'. Kant believed that it was possible to discover the one true and unchanging categorical apparatus, which represents as it were the necessary unchanging framework of our intellectual outfit, ie human 'reason' [compare the failures of evidence based med] #@# Massie, Land of Firebird, Touchstone, 1980 ISBN 0-671-46059-5 p56 By the 16th century and perhaps even earlier, the Russians had devised an efficient system of prefabricated houses far in advance of anything of the kind in Europe. It was almost an essential service, for Russian cities were constantly threatened by fire p59 visiting Greeks complained bitterly in their writings, saying that living among such hardy people was almost equivalent to suicide. Who but the Russians, they asked, could manage to stand for such long hours in church and deprive themselves of almost all food during the seven weeks of Lent? Englishmen found the custom of moving about in and out of church very disturbing; people, said one. "gaggle and cackle like geese" [This cocktail party atmosphere is perfect justification for pews] p64 In Russian, Ivan is not called "the Terrible," but something very different - Grozny [like Chechen capital].. "awesome" Ivan was an extraordinary tsar, and his reign of fifty-one years was the longest in Russian history. He inspired respect, fear and pity. He was complex, tortured and, in his later years, very probably insane p65-7 Although Ivan was Grand Prince, these regent boyars humiliated and tormented him.. unprincipled barbarity.. At thirteen, he suddenly asserted himself.. married a girl whom he had chosen from among the hundreds brought to Moscow for his inspection. Legend suggest he had already fallen.. Anastasia Zakharina-Romanova.. 1560, thirteen years after they were married, Anastasia herself died.. grief turned to rage and paranoia.. mad obsession that made him see traitors everywhere.. unusual memory and considerable literary ability.. first printing press brought to Russia p74 divorce on grounds of barrenness alone was not permited, the Patriarch of Jerusalem opposed the marriage of Ivan's father to his mother and laid down then a terrible curse.. came true.. argument with his beloved eldest son and heir.. Ivan jabbed at Boris [Gdunov], wounding him. Then enraged, he brought down the heavy end of his staff on his son's skull p78 peasants continued to flee the countryside in droves. Boris [Gdunov] was forced to institute the first laws tying them to the land, thus beininning the institution of serfdom p79 most representative Council of the Realm ever assembled, composed of boyars, clergy, merchants, Cossacks and free peasants, was called together to choose a new tsar. Their choice finally fell on the grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible, a descendant of Ivan's beloved Anastasia, Michael Romanov p80-1 At seventeen, he chose an old-fashioned and very religious girl, Maria Miloslavskaya, as his wife and was himself so devout that he became to be called "the Pious." So sincerely did he follow the precepts of the church that at the age of twenty, persuaded by the stern Patriarch of the time, it was he who offcially banned the skomorokhi and all amusements. (It was an action that Puritans of EUrope would have approved; this austere period in Russia occured during the same years that Cromwell was banning Maypoles and the theater in England.) Alexis' devotion to the church was so extreme that his English doctor, Samuel Collins, wrote of him: He never misses divine service. If he be well, he goes to it, if sick, it comes to him in his chamber. On fast days he frequents midnight prayers, standing four, five, six hours together, prostrating himself to the ground, sometimes a thousand times and on great festivals 1500. In great fast, he eats but three meals a week; for the rest a piece of brown bread and salt, a pickled mushroom or a cucumber, and drinks a cup of small beer. He eats fish but twice in the great Lent and observes it seven weeks altogether. In fine, no man is more observant of canonical hours than he is of fasts. We may reckon he fasts eight months in twelve.".. Tsar Michael had begun the rebuilding of the demolished Kremlin palaces, and under Alexis they reached their highest degree of luxury pp 90-2 Whie he was very young, Peter adopted the principle that was to rule his actions all his life: advancement should be based on merit and not on rank. (Until he felt he was sufficiently skilled, he served as a private in his own regiment.).. All his life, whenever he saw pieces of mechanical equipment, clockwork or navigational instruments, he could usually guess their purpose at a glance and take them apart and reassemble them.. during his lifetime he became skilled in fourteen specialties.. ferocious temper exploded he terrified everybody.. able to sober quickly.. "to break the bonds of inflexible customs of Muscovy..".. dreamed of retrieving in one bold stroke what he saw as two centuries lost to the Mongol domination.. after his [co-tzar] brother's death, he made the startling decision to go and see Europe.. In March 1697, led by Peter's Genevan General Lefort.. incognito as the "volunteer and seaman Peter Mikhailov".. demanded to see and examine everything p94 personally cut off the beards of all the boyars.. Barbers were posted at the gates of Moscow.. hid their shaven beards under their pillows.. relented a little and allowed men to pay a tax for the privelege of keeping their beards p96 reforms were heresy. The Anti-Christ was on the throne with smoke billowing out of his mouth.. 1709, at Poltava in the Ukraine, Peter deisively defeated the Swedes, previously considered invincible, and thus established Russia as a great European power p98-9 Peter was subject to epileptic-like convulsions.. from Lake Lagoda, the largest lake in Europe, the Neva River flows into the sea. At the mouth of the Gulf of Finland, it divides into four arms to form an extensive marshy delta.. Long before these lands had been part of the great domain of Lord Novgorod the Great but the Swedes had taken them.. seizing them from the Swedes in 1702.. an eagle soared over the head of the Tsar and landed on two birch trees that had been tied together to form an arch.. eagle became a pet.. Dutch name, Sankt Piterburkh.. climate is terrible. The river is frozen six months of the year. The islands of the delta are marshy. The city had to be built on wooden piles sunk into this shifting swampy ground p128-32 Peter was the grandson of Peter the Great and the grandnephew of Charles the XII of Sweden.. hated everything Russian and openly scorned the Orthodox Church.. young Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst, a seconf cousin of Peter's.. shrewdly realized that to be popular she needed to show an interest in the Russian language and the Orthodox Church.. splendid impression that the little foreign princess was so devoted to the Russian language that she had risked serious illness to master it.. rebaptized into the Orthodox Church with the more felicitous name of Catherine.. 1745.. smallpox.. disfigured.. Catherine saw him, she was horrified.. retreated into his past and acted more and more German. Catherine, with intelligent calculation, acted more and more Russian.. took two lovers. One was the chaming Polish aristocrat Stanislaw Poniatowski, whom many years later she made King of Poland. After Stanislaw left for Poland, Catherine took up with a dashing Guards officer named Grigory Orlov.. By the time Elizabeth died, Catherine was pregnant by Orlov.. Guards, led by the Orlovs, organized and executed the coup d'etat that proclaimed her Empress. Ten days later, Peter died in mysterious circumstances, after a wild night of drinking with a group of men, including Orlov's brother Alexei [Germans took Russia a millenium after taking the Vatican] p134 Catherine [II] was always a shrewd follower of trends and people rather than an imitator.. especially of France.. "..if she spoke French... because she wished Russia to forget that she was born in Germany" p146-8 One-fourth of the area of Europe was added to Russia - Poland, the Crimea and large parts of Turkey.. Grigory Potemkin. For seventeen years he ruled with her. He was her lover, her closest advisor, her foreign minister, her commander in chief and probably her husband.. chose all her subsequent lovers.. Potemkin remeained the real master of Russia p153 revenge of the twarted son was swift; on the day of his coronation he changed the law of succession. From henceforth only males could rule Russia.. Potemkin's body was exposed to the birds.. His passion for Prussian drilling continued p155 Only in Russia and in the United States in the 1820's and 1830's was this neoclassical style used for so many public buildings p157 Russian people's fierce defense of their land against Napoleon is one of the most magnificent examples of national courage in history. Contemporary Europeans were completely astonished. Used to the old Western stereotype of a Russia full of downtrodden peasants oppressed by an indolent aristocracy, they were surprised instead by a nation united in feeling in which both lord and peasant fought fiercely side by side with inspiring unity of purpose and patriotism p158 [Napoleon wrote] "such terrible tactics have no precedent in the history of civlization... To burn one's own cities.. A demon inspires these people! What savage determination! What a people! What a people!" p159 Russian Army arrived as triumphant liberators in Paris. On March 31, 1814, to the wild cheering of crowds, Alexander rode a white horse down the Champs Elysees, followed by his Cossacks and officers in white uniforms with flowing capes.. bistro comes from the word bystro.. "quickly" [explains why Frenchmen like Rancour-laFerriere and leDonne hate Russia so much!] p165 The great war against Napoleon had made Russian aristocrats deeply conscious of Western political ideas. Fighting side by side with simple Russians, they had become conscious of the rights of all people p166 far more German than Russian.. Nicholas II was only 1/256 Russian [leDonne claims tsars married Germans to avoid having to conquer fiefdoms to grant their new in-law] p175 Russians, continued Kohl [Johann G Kohl, Colburn, London, 1842], could be called "Mohammedans of Christianity" because the phrases "I can't tell, God knows" and "if it pleases God" that prefaced and ended their sentences p203 Alexander Sergeievich Pushkin was born in Moscow on May 28, 1799, into an old boyar family.. mother's side, his great-grandfather was an Abyssinian [Ethiopian Orthodox] prince named Ibrahim Hannibal, whom he later immortalized in an unfinished novel, The Negro of Peter the Great p210 Russians love song, poetry and poets with a passion shared only by the Irish p212 [Kohl, op_cit] "Ever since Peter the Great, Russia has been seized by such a prodigious enthusiasm for education as no nation in the world had ever exhibited" p255 Along the Nevsky Prospect were churches of every denomination.. religious tolerance of all Russians and the charity in religious belief prevalent in all ranks of society was noted with surprise in the accounts of many foreigners in the mid-19th century [quotes Kohl] p267 "The serf has more freedom of movement that the German peasant," commented Kohl in 1842 with some astonishment. p286-7 Germany and the Hapsburg dominions, serfdom was abolished by the Rovolution of 1848. Remnants of serfdom were not abolished in the United States until 1833, when the [Dutch] patroon system in New York State finally ended.. When Alexander II came to the throne, 37.7 percent of Russians were classified as serfs, according to the census of 1858. Of these, half were state peasants, whose only obligation was to pay a tax to the state and who could, with authorization from their community, leave to seek work freely in the cities [it is worth noting that in many cases in the 1970s the UN encouraged countries to keep their farmers away from cities, emulating the communist forcing back to the land] p288 As soon as a person reached the eighth rank, which corresponded to a colonel in the army or a captain in the navy, he automatically became a "noble" p289 Nevertheless, when, after four years, Alexander saw that little headway was being made, in 1860 he liberated all the crown serfs. Then, overriding all objections, he spoke as an autocrat: "This I desire, I demand, I command," and set a deadline for the rest of the nation. On March 3, 1861, he signed the emancipation decree into law, two days before Lincoln's first inaurguation, and two years before the United States freed the slaves p313 One of Tolstoy's deep desires in the creation of his novel was to show that his serf-owning grandparents, parents and indeed, even, himself were not the inhuman monsters of the popular imagination, but decent men and women who lived the best they could with an unjus institution which they had not created p320 Dostoevsky, Western society was too materialistic and commercial p326-7 [Florovsky's anti-Hegel?] Herzen was a man passionately devoted to individual liberty who dedicated hislife to rebellion against every form of oppression.. weekly newspaper, The Bell (Kolokol).. officially prohibited.. 1857 to 1861, Herzen's newspaper was the principal political force in Russia, and its article often led to immediate action. The newspaper was found on the desks of ministers and even of Alexander II, who read it regularly and carefull and tried as he could to correct the abuses he cited p328 On March 14, 1881, they assasinated Alexander with a bomb. Fatefully, in his pocket on the day he was killed was a draft of a constituton which was to be published in the newspapers on the following day pp396-8 old-style merchants, many of them stern Old Believers [compare to Quakers?], had the reputation of being a hard-working, hard-driving, hard-praying lot, despotic and tyrannical in their family life, cunning and ruthless in business.. wide abyss yawned between the bourgeoisie and the intelligensia.. end of 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, RUssia led both Europe and Americain its rate f economic growth.. Between 1885 and 1913, oil production, organized by the Nobel family that had come from Sweden and settled i St Petersburg in 1835, increades four and a half times. (The famous Alfred Nobel, who returned to live in sweden in the early 1860's, exploded his first ines in the Neva River, based on work he had done onnitroglycerine with his Russian professor at the University of St Petersburg. His two brothers, RObert and Ludwig, stayed on in Russia and went on to develop the richly productive Baku oil fields.).. In the late 19th century, these independent dynasties of merchants exercised great power. In their beloved Moscow, they built hospitals, clinics and schools, old people's homes and rest homes for students.. In fact, wrote Stanislavsky, "the finest institutions of Moscow in all spheres of life including art and religion were founded by private initiative." #@# Florinsky (Columbia),Russia, Macmillan 1953 p2 Not unlike the United States, although for different reasons, Russia had her "frontier,".. absence of natural barriers also greatly facilitated the invasion of Russian territory by the nomadic tribes of the steppes. The struggle against these invaders, which heavily overcast the life of the nation until near the end of the eighteenth century, left a deep and lasting imprint upon the development of the country.. rivers that the population settled in the early stage of the country's history p4 Asiatic invades felt at home in the steppes and seldom made any attempt to penetrate the forest p9 With the downfall of the Khazars and the appearance of the Patzinacs, the necessity of such defense was strongly felt. It was in 862 that, according to tradition, Riurik, the first Nordic ruler of Russia and the founder of the dynasty, established himself in Novgorod p38 Crude, ruthless, passionate, anarchistic, and often bloody as were the meetings of the veche, it was the nearest approach to a democratic institution Russia has ever experience.. immemorial customs, a successor perhaps of the ancient assembly of the clan elders.. Tatar invasion had dealt a death blow.. supremacy of Kiev, however, was built on a shifting foundation.. unification of Russia under the early Kievan princes was, as we have seen, largely illusory.. advantages derived by Kiev from its position on the great water route leading from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from its commercial relations with Byzantium gradually became impaired p39 transformation of the princes and the boyars from merchant soldiers into a landed aristocracy p43 Russia of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, weakened as it was by internal dissensions and the weight of the Tatar yoke, fell easy prey to its neighbor, and energetic, vigorous and ambitious young state.. northwest the Teutonic knights, who appeared on the shores of the Baltic Sea early in the thirteenth century, displayed fanatical zeal in bringing, by fire and sword, the light of Roman Catholicism alike to Lithuanians, who were heathens, and to the Orthodox Slavs, while in the west there was strongly felt the pressure of a militant Roman Catholic Poland. In the northeast the growing power of Muscovy was forcibly advancing its expansionist claims and policies that were often opposed to the interests of the Russian southwest. Under these conditions it was not surprizing that the harassed south Russian princes ranged themselves behind the determined leadership of the Lithuanian grand dukes p61 In 1275, for instance, the Russian princes with the support of the Tartar troops fought a successful war against Lithuania pp62-3 Many of them, it will be recalled, had to pay frequent and protracted visits tot he Golden Horde and, in turn, had to receive Tartar dignitaries who arrived uninvited with large retinues and remained as long as they pleased. Some of the Russian princes married Tartar princesses.. severe crisis that developed in the Mongo state in the second half of the fourteenth century and brought about the collapse of that state a century later had among its consequences the influx into Russia of Tartar princes and high officials, accompanied by numerous servants and armed detachments. The growing power of Moscow offered them better opportunities than did the Golden Horde... Kliuchevskly, at the end of the seventeenth century about 17 per cent of the Moscow upper class was of Tartar or eastern origin p65 determined Mamai to teach a severe lesson to his rebellious vassal. He concluded an alliance with Yagailo, grand duke of Lithuania, and in the summer of 1380 crossed the Volga.. Russian army met the Tartars in the Kulikovo plain on Septmber 8, 1380.. not unlike that of Greece on the eve of Marathon pp128-9 Reverend Golubinsky, the emminent and penetrating historian of the Russian Church, has aptly described the resulting situation as that of a "double-faith," that is, heathenism and Christianity.. just as ignorant of Christian dogma as were their parishioners.. Far from denouncing pagan and semi-pagan observances, the clergy encouraged them, partly because of ignorance and parlty because they were a source of revenue.. Golubisnky, the strict observance of the Church ritual - genuflections, constant performance of the sign of the cross, and so on - goes back no further than to the middle of the reign of the very pious Tsar Alexis. Contrary tot he widely held assumption, the indifference of the masses towards religion is one of the characteristics of Russia's history p165 The unhappy fate of Constantinople was explained by the Moscow theologian as a punishment for accepting union with Rome.. Filotheus a monk in a Pskov.. [inspired by Bulgarian Miliukov] substitute Moscow for Tyrnowo as the new [Rome] capital of the Christian world p166 devised a novel and imaginative historical and genealogical scheme which made the Moscow dynasty the direct descendants of "Pruss, brother of the Roman Caesar Augustus.".. tale that Russia had received Christianity, not from Byzantium, but directly from [St] Andrew p167 Moscow government needed land for distribution in service tenure. The ranks had been steadily increased as a consequence of the rapid expansion of its territory and of the almost uninterrupted wars. The large ecclesiastical estates were a coveted p202 oprichnina gradually assumed control of the chief domestic markets and of the principlal trade routes. The result was that the zemshchina, with its flickering tradition of local independence, was brought under the sway of the landholders unreservedly controlled by the state. the two most signicant consequences of oprichnina were the final destruction of the political influence of the old landed aristocracy and the forcible transfer of land on a huge scale p203 Ivan, taking advantage of internal dissension within the Tartar states, conquered and annexed Kazan in 1552 and Astrakhan in 1556.. Ivan, who in the ealry stages of the expedition threatened the Stroganov with his displeasure for involving him in a conflict with the Siberian rulers and promised to send the Cossacks to the gallows, changed his mind when the venture proved a triumph p210 It might be supposed that the government could count on the support of the large and rapidly increasing group os sluzhilye liudi (also known as deti boyarsliia and dvoriane), that is, hereditary tenants holding land (pomestie) subject to the obligation of military service. The dvoriane of the sixteenth century, however, were a motley agglomeration of people drawn from every stratum of society, including the slaves (kholopy) p211 A pomestie abandoned by its tenants was of no use to its holder, and the government had a double reason for putting a check on a process of migration which not only depried the state of a large number of taxpayers, who no longer could be reached, but also undermined the economic foundation on which rested the organization of the military class p215 indebtedness to the landlord, which prevented them from taking advantage of their right of moving away.. Diakonov describes these tenants as the first Russian serfs. It was from these two roots - the indebtedness of the peasant tenants to their landlords and the fiscal policy of the Muscovite state - that the institution of serfdom evolved gradually and in a piecemeal fashion. Its origins are lost in the darkest of ages and it did not reach its full development until the middle of the seventeenth century. In the sixteenth century a combination of peculiar circumstances, with which we are already familiar, contributed to the acceleration of the process of enslavement of the once free tenants. The oprichnina of Ivan the Dread, with its reshuffling of landlords on a gigantic scale, could not but throw into confusion the masses of the farmers. This confusion was further aggravated by the spread of the pomestie form of landholding, accompanied as it was, by the creation of a vast number off small estates with the resultant personal dependance of the tenants on their landlords p216 Since the ingenuity of the Moscow chanceries had tightly closed every loophole that would permit a peasnat farmer to improve his position, he took the law into his own hands and fled from the oppressors. The expansion of the Russian frontier towards the east during the reign of Ivan IV added impetus to the process of migration. This reprieve, however, proved short-lived for the governement was not slow in distributing the newly acquired territories as pomestie, and the fugitives from advancing serfdom found themselves in conditions similar to those they had attempted to escape. For those who were longing for freedom and adventure, there wa still another haven in the no man's land in the southern steppes which separated Muscovy from the Crimean Tartars. In the sixteenth century the territories north of the Black Sea were swarming with fugitives from Muscovy, Poland, and Lithuania. Known as the Cossacks, and loosely organized into semi-military groups under an elected leader, they made a precarious living chiefly by brigandage and by entering the military service of whoever cared to pay them p242 In a proclamation issued at the end of 1611, or early in 1612, the Cossacks were denounced, both Marina's infant son and the Polish king were repudiated, and the election of a new [1st Romanov] tsar was promised p286 When the news of the defeat of the Russian troops by a combined force of Poles, Tartars, and Cossacks at Chudnov (1660) reached Moscow, the tsar made hasty preparations to abandon the capital because he suspected and feared the probable reaction of his "faithful" subjects.. For if the populace of Moscow manifested no intention of overthrowing the tsar, it was in the habit of treating his august person with a complete lack of respect p287 Religious practices were reduced to the superstitious repetition of traditional formulas whose magic power was believed to be the greater the less one understood what they meant. The departure from custom in such matters appeared to many Russians as heresy and blasphemy. There were other reasons why the opposition to the reforms embarked upon by Nikon and Alexis was stiffened.. Moscow government had itself fostered an attituded of contemptuous superiority towards the former Greek teachers of the Russian Church p288 standards of the clergy continued to remain almost unbelievably low. There developed among other practices that of cutting down the rather unbearable length of Church services by having different parts of the service recited and sung simultaneously, with the distressing effect one may well imagine. The Greek hierarchs who visited Russia repeatedly drew the attention of the leaders of the Russian Church to regrettable departures from Byzantine customs, criticisms which failed to produce immediate result since the Orthodoxy of the Greeks themselves was under suspicion. Sporadic attempts to correct the Russian religious texts begun in the first half of the sixteenth century, when the learned Greek Maxim paid dearly for his zeal, were continued in the seventeenth, but since they were usually entrusted to men who did not know the Greek language they merely led to a multiplication of errors p289 There also came to the fore a small but influential group of churchmen who shared the prevailing suspicion of the Greeks and the disciples of the Kievan Academy but who were nevertheless anxious tor eform the Russian Church services, to make them more accessible to the masses by removing their excessive and boring formalism. In this attitude one may detect a kinship with the ideas of the Reformation. Headed by Stephen Vonifatev, confessor of the tsar, the group included among others a popular preacher, Ivan Neronov, the priest Avvakum, future leader of the dissenters, and Nikon, who was soon to be elevated to the patriarchate.. Breaking definitely with his former nationalistically-minded friends, Nikon proclaimed his determination to restore harmony between Russian and the Greek Churches by eliminating the irregular practices which the former had erroneously adopted p290 Nikon in 1653 ordered the number of genuflections (zennoi poklon) performed during the reading of a certain prayer reduced from the customary twelve to four and prescribed the useof three instead of two fingers in making the sign of the cross. He had launched a crusade against icons that departed from the Byzantine pattern and showed Italian influence p294 expectation of the end of the world, which was to come in 1666 or 1669, and when the dreaded event failed to materialize new computations indicated that 1698 was to be the fateful date. There was some confusion as to who was the antichrist. Although Nikon fitted well in the art, he was soon eliminated. The tsars Alexis, Fedor, and Peter succeeded him.. northern and eastern provinces, where many of the old-believers had taken refuge, there developed an epidemic of mass suicide by burning p296 special suburb where the foreigners resided had existed in Moscow from the days of Ivan the Dread. It was known as the "German Settlement" (Nemetskaia Sloboda), since to the Russian masses all foreigners were Germans p297-8 Decrees made it compulsory to attend Church during the frequent lents, fasting and holy communion were made a duty (1659), and work on Sundays and holidays was prohibited. It became a criminal offense to look at the new moon, to play chess, and to use popular musical instruments.. punishable by knout [leather knot flogging]. Nothing, however, was done to discourage drunkenness, for the government derived important revenues from the sale of liquor.. Wives were at the mercy of their husbands, and the most shocking kind of promiscuity was prevalent among the lower classes, where large families were usually crowded into a single room. According to Solovev, trustworthy evidence indicates that no other country, either in the east or west displayed the same indulgence as did Muscovy towards sexual perversion.. Church council of 1666-1667, which deposed Nikon and anathametized the old-believers, had to repeat the decree of the council of 1521 whose decisions in other fields it so severely condemend. The new program was less ambitious. It merely directed the priests to teach their children to read and write, since preisthood had become largely hereditary. But even this modest wish was not fulfilled p299 Medvedev, a disciple of Simeon Polotsky, and a supporter of Latinism, in 1682 became the head of a Moscow school modelled on the Kievan Academy. Simultaneously the defenders of Hellenism opened a printing press and a school devoted to the study of Greek. The two antagonistic movements were both opposed to the reformation, which had begun to make converts in Moscow. In 1687 the two schools were merged in the newly established Slavono-Greek-Latin Academy, which became not only the center of higher learning but also the all-powerful arbiter in educational and religious matters p300 Handicapped by the use of Slavonic characters instead of Arabic figures, which did not gain acceptance in Russia until the eigteenth century, few Muscovites were reckless enough to venture beyond addition and subtraction p302 Goerge Krizanic, a Croat enthusiast who came to Russia in 1659 full of hopes and intense faith in the triumph of panslavism under the leadership of the Russian tsar, experienced much disillusionment and, finding himself in exile in Siberia, traced in his writings the most unflattering picture of the country of his dreams, a country in which he, however, continued to believe p440 Supreme Privy Council met in a secret session at the Lefort Palace. In Addition to the five regular members of the Council, the conclave included Prince M V Dolgoruky, Field Marshal Prince V V Dolgoruky, and Field Marshal Prince M M Golitsin, that is, the assembly consisted of the Chancellor Count Golovkin, the Vice Chancellor Baron Ostermann, four Dolgoruky and two Golitsin p441 Anne was requested to promise that she would not marry or appoint an heir and that she would continue "the now-existing Supreme Privy Council of eight members." It was further stipulated that without the consent of that body the empress should not declare war or make peace; impose taxes; confer army or civil ranks above that of colonel; deprive the dvoriane of their estates without a trial; grant estates; confer court titles on either Russians or foreigners or make court appointments; dispose of state revenue. The "Conditions" also stated that "the guards and other regiments" were to be under the direct control of the Supreme Privy Council. The document ended with a solemn declaration that by violating any of the above provisions the empress should forfeit her right to the Crown [Pipes argues Anne's cancelling this agreement veered off into modern autocracy] p443 throngs of the dvoriane gathered in Moscow in January, 1730, for the marriage of Peter II were thrown into great confusion by the circumstances of Anne's election.. The projects disclosed a resentment of arbitrary rule, especially by favorites, and made proposals to curb the resulting abuses by providing for the participation in government of representatives of the dvoriane and by making the higher offices elective. Concrete proposals were advanced to prevent the oligarchical rule of individual families (the limitation on the number of members of the same family permitted to belong to the proposed governing body). The chief and most popular proposals for reform, however, voiced the professional grievances of the dvoriane and clamored for the shortening of compulsory service to twenty years; permission to enter the army and navy as officers, and not as privates and seamen; better pay for army men; the repeal of the extremely unpopular law of March 23, 1714, on entail p444 On the morning of February 25 the imperial palace was surrounded by troops led by officers favoring the restorarion of autocracy, and a delegation presented to the empress a petition with eighty-five signatures, demanding the convocation of a representative assembly of the dvoriane onto draft proposals for the reorganization of the government p577 financial obligation of the state peasants consisted of the poll tax and the obrok, which was a rent payable to the state for the use of land allotments.. Although the state peasants were, in theory, permanently attached to their allotments, there developed among them the practice of disposing of the land they occupied as if it were their private property. Allotments were leased out, mortgaged, given as dowry, and sold not only to other state peasants, but to outsiders, such as merchants, burghers, and the clergy. The unrestricted transfer of land led to the accumulation of considerable landed properties in the hands of some of the state peasants, while others were greatly impoverished and found it difficult or impossible to meet their tax obligations. The resulting desire of the holders of small allotments for an equalitarian distribution of land among inhabitants of rural communes coincided with the interests of the government, always mindful of the needs of the treasury. The 1766 instruction for land surveying ordered the restitution, without compensation, to the communes of state peasants of land that had been transferred to the ownership of members of other social groups; further transfers of land to outsiders as well as among the state peasants were prohibited p578 Under this system the land of a peasant commune was periodically redistributed among its members on the basis either of the labor power (number of adult males) or of the consumption needs (number of people reeiving maintenance) of each household. I the administration of their communal affairs the state peasants enjoyed some degree of self-governement, electing their own officials, whose activites, needless to say, were carried on under the close supervision of Crown officers.. Secularization, therefore, might be considered a measure beneficial to the peasantry, especially since the Church was among the harshest landlors, even with powers less comprehensive than those of private owners. p579 Under the obrok system most of the land of an estate was farmed on their own account by serfs, who paid the owner an annual amount known as obrok. Under barshcina system only a portion of the land of an estate, and usually the smaller portion, was farmed by the serfs on their own account, while the bulk of the land was managed directy by the owner and was cultivated by compulsory servile labor (the French Corvee) p581 The chief organ of peasant self-government was the village assmebly, which consisted of adult male houseolders. The normal functions of the assembly comprised the election of village officials (the elder, assistant elder, treasurer, collector of revenue, bookkeeper, policemen); participation in the administration of justice and in the determination of punishments; apportionment of taxes and tributes among the householders; selection of recruits for the army; administration of funds raised for communal purposes such as wages of village offical, relief of the poor, bribing of authorities; administration of the equalitarian distribution of land among the households of those estates were communal land tenure was in force a rule, serfs under the obrok system enjoyed greater p583 decree of 1730 specifically provided that serfs might not own real estate in urban localities,a nd a decree of August 1 , 1737, allowed them to purchase agricultural land only in the name of their lord and with his permission. In spite of these restrictions serfs owned town houses, populated estates, and industrial enterprises which were registered in the nmame of their masters.. Some of the serfs accumulated fortunes that ran into hundreds of thousands of rubles, and they enjoyed the de fact right to dispose of them as they pleased, subject to the formal consent of their owner.. Populated estates, as well as individual serfs, were sometimes purchased by peasant communes in the name of the owner.. One of the reasons for the purchase of serfs by serfs was the desire to escape military service, an obligation that the peasants dreaded even more than they hated serfdom. As the date of the levy of recruits drew nearer, village communes - sometimes with the financial assistance of the owner - raised funds to buy the number of able-bodied men necessary to meet their quota p584 However, since eigteenth century Russia, like the Muscovy of the seventeenth century, would not tolerate citizens who were not definitely affiliated with one of the social and legal groups into which the population was subdivided, the freemen were orderded to join the ranks of merchants, burghers, or state peasants p641 In December, 1812, there was formed in St. Petersburg the Russian Bible Society modeled on the British and Foreign Bible Society of London. Golitsin became its president, Koshelev one of the vice presidents, and the emperor hastened to enroll among its members (February 15, 1813). The governing body of the society, which, unlike its British prototype, was financed by the government, consisted of laymen and of ecclesiatical dignitaries of the Russian Orthodox, the Roman Catholic, and the Lutheran Churches. According to a contemporary French diplomat De Gabriac, the ultimate object the emperor and Golitsin hoped to achieve throught the Bible Society was "the establishment of one Christian faith which will unite all Christian denominations" p673 Early in 1812 Napoleon concluded military alliances with Prussia (February 24, NS) and Austria (March 14, NS) but both Frederick and Metternich gave Alexander secret assurances that the participation of their countries in a war against Russia, if it was to come, would be pruely nominal. At the end of 1811 the tsar sought the cooperation of his former foreign minister, Prince Adam Czartoryski, in winning over to the Russian side the duchy of Wasaw. He suggested the restoration of the kingdom of Poland under the scepter of the Russian emperor, who was to assume the title of king of Poland. Prince Adam, however, realized that this vague offer would not commend itself to his countrymen, whose mistrust of Russia was deep-rooted and only too well justified by past experience. Ignorant of Napoleon's profound indifference towards the independence of their country, the Poles had come to look upon him as their liberator. Czartoryski, therefore, gave Alexander no encouragement, and declined to participate in the execution of his project. Russia was more successful in her negoiations with Sweden p777 The real issue between the Crown and the nobility, however, was serfdom. Count Uvarov, the ablest ideologist of the regime, expressed the views of the conservative elements when he held that "serfdom is closely tied up with autocracy and even with the preservation of imperial unity (edinoderzhavie): they are two parallel forces which have grown together; both spring from the same historical source and follow the same law of development." Uvarov described serfdom as "a tree which has taken deep root - it rotects (oseniaet) the Church and the throne and cannot be uprooted." "Political religion has its dogmas, immutable like those of Christianity," Uvarov argued in 1832. "With us they are autocracy and serfdom; why touch them when, fortunately for Russia, they have been preserved by a powerful hand?" Nicholas, although he placed Uvarov and other inveterate enemies of emancipation (for instance, Prince Alexander Menshikov) at the top of the bureaucratic hierarchy, did not fully share his view. As has already been stated, he believed that serfdom was a "flagrant evil" but that the time was not ripe for emancipation and that premature action would lead to the worst disasters p779 The reluctance of Nicholas and his advisers to intervene in the relations between landowners and ther serfs was put aside in the case of the western provinces annexed from Poland, wherethe laned nobility was largely Polish and the peasantry Russian. The weakening of the power of the landowners, in this case, was a part of the general policy of Russification followed by St Petersburg after the insurrection of 1830-1831 p808 From Schelling the seekers after truth turned to Kant, then to Fichte, and finally to Hegel, whose influence proved powerful and lasting, partly because the interpretations or misinterpretations of his views lent themselves equally well to the support of either radical or conservative doctrines. Seriously as Russian intellectuals took German metaphysics - divergencies in the interpretation of some obscure form of Hegelian philosophy are known to have broken life-long friendships - some of them disillusioned with philosophical systems that centered on the eternal and insoluble problems confronting man, with little attention to current social issues p809 Slavophilism was not, as is suggested by its name, identical with panslavism. The term "slavophile" was first applied to Shishkov and his friends, who advocated the purification of Russian litrary language by substituting words derived from Old Slavonic for those of foreign origin. The slavophile doctrine of the 1840's as expounded in the writings of its founders (the brothers Ivan and Peter Kireevsky, Ivam and Constantine Aksakov, Alexis Khomiakov) was a highly romantic nationalism which extolled the imaginary virtues of the truly Russian national ways as superior to those of the decadent west and saw in the Orthodox Church the source of Russia's strength in th epast and her chief hope for the future. The harmonious course of Russian history, according to this view, was interrupted by the reforms of Peter I; constitutional government was foreign to the spirit of the Russian people and would only lead, as it did in western Europe, to social discord and class struggle which, Constantine Aksakov imagined, were alien to Russian national tradition. [NB, this is roughly the same time when Pope Pio Nino forbade voting] His celebrated formula demanded for the government "unlimited power of state action," and for the people "unrestricted moral freedom, freedom of life and spirit"; the governemnt should have "he right of action and therefore of lawmaking; the people - the right of opinion and therefre of expression." THe voice of the people should be heard through a free press and a consultative popular assembly organized on the lines of the seventeenth century zemskii sobor. The slavophiles were enthusiatic about the village commune (obschina or mir), and their insistence on its merits is regarded by some historians as the cornerstone of their teaching p810 Ivan Aksakov admitted in 1856 that while the name of Belinsky was revered by every thoughtful young man in provincial Russia, the slavophines were practically unknown. Slavophilism was frowned upon by the government p840-1 "Unkiar Skelessi is a true turning point in the attitude of English statesmen towards Russia," writes Temperley. "It bred in Palmerston a fatal hostility to Russia and converted even Whigs to the Tory policy of bolstering up Turkey." Russia's ascendancy in Turkey appeared all the more ominous because it took place simultaneoulsy with a rapprochement of the three eastern Powers.. In two secret articles Russia and Austria undertook (1) to prevent Mehment Ali from acquiring any direct or indirect influence in any part of European Turkey, and (2) to maintain their unity and to act in concert in case the dissolution of the Ottoman empire should become inevitable.. Palmerston was convinced that its object was the partition of Turkey. Metternich unsuccessfully pleaded witht he tsar for permission to reveal the secret articles, a step which would have eased internaional tension... An anti-Russian campaign of extraordinary violence was in progress in England. The writings of David Urquhart, a prominent radical, fanatical hater of Russia, and for a brief time (1835-1836) secratary of the Brisitsh embassy at Constantinople, were particularly notable for the vehemence of their invecties p842 Russia's alleged threat to India, wich became an article of faith with British statesmen of the Palmerstonian school, made London watch with growing anxiety the activites of the tsarist government in the regions deemed suitable as the starting point of the expected invasion. It was imagined, with scant regard for formidable geographic and political obstacles p843 Anglo-Russian rivalries in Persia centered in the domination of Afghanistan, not yet a united tate, and especially under the control of the commercially and strategically important cities of Herat an kabul. Mohammad, who became the shah of Persia in 1834, waa a partisan of Russia, and at the instigation of the Russian minister to Tehran, Count Simonich, he embarked in the autumn of 1837 on a campaign for the conquest of Herat. At the same time the Russians succeeded in strengthening their diplomatic influence in Kabul.. Even more lamentable was the outcome of a Russian expedition for the conquest of Khiva. St Petersburg had long complained that the khan of Khiva had plundered Russian caravans, and in 1839 the tsar announced his intention of asserting in that part of Asia the influence which "rightly belong to Russia. Palmerston perceived in the Khivan venture a new threat to India, and spoke to the Russian ambassador of retaliatory measures that might lead to war. His apprehensions were again ill founded p877 The tsar's ultra-conservatism was largely responsible for the formation of the anti-Russian coalition and although there are no conclusive proofs that he actually intended to destroy Turkey, there are reputable Russian historians who believed, as did Palmerston, that this was Nicholas' ultimate object. Professor S M Seredonin, for instance, wrote (in 1911) that in the 1840's Nicholas "had set as the aims of his policy the supression of revolution and the elimination of Turkey" and in the final analysis, the establishment of "Russian hegemony over Europe." On the other hand, John Bright spoke of "the 50,000 Englishment who died in the Crimea to make Lord Palmerston prime minister." Although the prejudiced, theories, and personal ambitions of the chief actors in the great drama - Nicholas, Napoleon, Palmesrston, Stratford - contributed to the making of the war, it is nevertheless more likely taht the course of events was determined rather by spontaneous decisions, the consequences of which were not fully realized, than by any preconceived plan p1028 The panslav doctrine of Ignatev brand, translated in terms of the San Stefano treaty, deliberately sacrificed Orthodoxy and Slavdom to aggressive Russian nationalism {Ignatiev invented phyletism and FYROM} p1185 Constitutionalism, therefore, was forced upon Witte by the personal failings of Nicholas and by the revolutionary situation in spite of his predilection for absolutism p1193 Nationalism and the emancipation of the [Russian] peasants from [Polish] bongage to the land commune became the pillars of his political program.. Stolypin did not share the aversion of officialdom for the Duma #@# Embarrassing Europe WashPost 22Sep1885 Paris 21Sep Semi-official advices tend to confirm the report tha Prince Alexander of Bulgaria acted entirely independent of RUssia in annexing Roumelia NYTimes 13Oct1885 Brussels Oct 12 Mr Gladstone has written to M Emile Louis Victor Laveleye, the well known writer on political economy, as follows: "I favor the Bulgarian union, but trust its territory will not exceed its present limit, because I fear disastrous competitions between the great powers themselves, and also the Hellenic and Slavonic races, for an extension of territory. I express myself on the question with reserve, because my mind is perplexed by the many difficulties surrounding it. I see that Bulgarian union, excellent in itself, may produce immeasurable evils." #@# NYTimes 1Aug1860 was not the whole war a piece of folly and a sham, in the view of the recent part Turkey has taken in massacres of the Christians.. now plain beyond denial that the accursed TUrkish Government, in whose defense Christian blood was made recently as cheap as ditch-water, is particeps_criminis in the war #@# NYTimes 15Oct1861 Edward Everett An official expression of the views of the Russian Government on the American question must, under any circumstances, be a very important event.. "abolishing servage in his vast dominions, we shal perceive that, in addition to the political considerations to which I shall presently allude, he has strong grounds of sympathy with the United STates, in a struggle forced upon them for the extension of Slavery".. It would be difficult to overstate the just influence which will be exerted by the latter of Prince Gortschakoff over the public opinion of Europe #@# NYTimes 16Jan1862 Rurik of Rosslagen (in Sweden) arriving sword in hand among the Salvonians of Novgorod and laying the foundation of the Russian Empire (862.).. Russian-Norman Vladimir, under whom Christianity was introduced (988).. Poles deny the continuous histroy of Russia from Rurik until the present day. They maintain that the modern Russia, or "Muscovite" Empire is something quite different from ancient Russia or "Ruthenia,".. Western RUssia united itself to Lithuania, Polaand and the Catholic CHurch, while Eastern Russia remained Greek Catholic, and had to acknowledge the domination of the Mongols.. a State which in its sub-Mongol abasement, lost all notions of liberty and legality.. Mongol principle of autocracy.. Russian writers on the other hand.. cruel persecution of the Mongols, Poland not merely looked on, but profited by her weakness, to deprive her of an immense portion of territory subjecting the Russian population thereof to the tyranny of a Polish aristocracy, and forcing upon it the "Union" decreed between the Roman Catholic and Greek Church #@# Solzhenitsyn Mortal Danger 1980 Harper&Row (FA 58#4) p11 Pipes even bestows upon Emperor Nicholas I the distinction of having invented totalitarianism. Leaving aside the fact that it was not until Lenin that totalitarianism was ever actually implemented, Mr Pipes, with all his erudition, should have been able to indicate that the idea of the totalitarian state was first proposed by Hobbes in his Leviathan (the head of state is here said to have dominion not only over the citizen's lives and property, but also over their conscience). Rousseau, too, had leanings in this direction when he declared the democratic state to be "unlimited sovereign" not only over the possessions of its citizens, but over their person as well p14 Just what "model" could Stalin have sene in the former, tsarist Russia, as TUcker has it? Camps there were none; the very concept was unknown. Long-stay prisons were very few in number, and hence politica prisoners -with the exception of terrorist extremists, but including all the Bolsheviks - were sent off to exile, where they were well fed and cared for at the expense of the state, where no one forced them to work, and whence any who so wished could flee abroad without difficulty p42 And so hundreds of thousands of these Russians and Cossacks, Tatars and Caucasian nationals were sacrificed; they wer enot even allowed to surrender to the Americans, but were turned over to the Soviet Union, there to face reprsals and execution p60 THe majority of governments in human history have been authoritarian, but they have yet to give birth to a totalitarian regime #@# Imperial Russia, 1998, ed Burbank, indiana.edu, 0-253-33462-4 xxi fn1 In Russia under the Old Regime (New York, 1974), Richard Pipes dates the critical deviation of imperial Russia from the desirable Western path at the time of the 1730 [Anna vs Golitsyn] succession crisis, which led to the creation of a modern police state in the 1880s [Kivelson, Michigan] p9 Dark rumors plagued the reign of Aleksei Mikhailovich (1645-1672) because he had foregon the crucial step of popular acclamation in his haste to solemnize the coronation [Whittaker, CUNY] p35 According to Lomonosov's typical list, the new duties included increasing the population, eradicating idleness, fostering prosperity, raising the cultural level, battling superstition, encouraging geographical exploration, and more traditionally, expanding borders. Autocrats were to provide moral, if not necessarily spiritual, leadership: Catherine II claimed that a monarch was needed to save the people "from envy," the vice most prominently mentioned by eighteenth-century Russian historians; Mankiev lauded autocrats who tried to eliminate drunkenness; Mal'gin looked to them to banish anti-Semetism from the realm p45 Ivan Elagin [Opyt, 1803,1:81,166-67] emphasized that among the early Russians, "we do not find the slightest sign of autocracy, even less of despotism, and neither an hereditary throne," but rather "examples of the free election of Leaders or Princes".. "princes, boyars, and the people took part in government and the power of the Grand Princes was not autocratic" [Hoch, Iowa] pp205 large, patriarchal family farm and the repartitional land commune rendered society structurally less vulnerable to subsistence crises.. From the lords' perspective, patriarchy broke serf society into manageable units of control.. relations between serf partiarchs and lords were collusive, hedonistic, and cooperative. In Russia, cooperative exploitation was the result p207 Russian peasants were not merely premodern and precapitalist, they were prefeudal.. Familism is a dependency which does not readily relate to traditional notions of freedom. At times, it was a dependency of great emotional and economic benefit; at times, a tyranny far worse than any class-based expropriation or repression [Freeze, Brandeis] p217 Amazingly enough, a century after the outbreak of the schism, the Church was dismayed to discover that many parishes not only had "ancient" icons but were also using old liturgical books, including some that antedated the Nikonian reforms.. prelates therefore ignored the ubiquitous practice of unauthorized "abridgements" in the parish performance of the liturgy. And when the bishops did dare encroach on religious practce, they encountered resilient opposition from below. That was perhapsmost apparent in their attempts to standardize liturgical music so as to emulate the style prevalent in elite circles of St Ptersburg, which were profoundly influenced by Western (specifically Italian) models pp224-5 in 1844 that shriekers had "infected entire villages".. parish clergy - fearful of retribution by angry parishioners - turned a blind eye and simply declined to report the offenders.. tavern competed with the church for the parishioners' attention and resources, and it also emitted a din or drunken shouts and cursing that interfered with the liturgy in nearby churches.. Synod began to complain about such problems in the 1740s, when it compiled massive data to show that the problem was pandemic, afflicting thousands of churches. Thereafer it made repeated sttempts to have such taverns relocated and to require that they remained closed until the conclusion of church services p231 Although some bishops required the clergy to sign an oath to combat "superstition" in any form, including both "miracle-working icons" and fools-in-Christ, these directives had no discernible effect.. More important, by the early nineteenth century ranking prelates came to question whether they even should tamper with popular piety. In part, this shift in sentiment reflected the more conservative religious atmosphere of the post-Napoleonic era, when elites believed that - whetever its shortcomings - piety was a fundamental pillar of stability and a bullwark against the scourge of revolution. To this was added a powerful, special concern in Russia, incontrovertible evidence of an explosion in the number of Old Believers and sectarians [Smith, USIA] p291 But why was so much attention devoted to Freemasonry?.. lodges' sence of mystery distinguished them from other new institutions: secrecy was anathema to the logic of the public sphere #@# NY Times 1Feb1892 Serfdom Again in Russia p1 Paris, Jan. 1 - According to the advices from St Petersburg the Czar intends to initiate measures for the restorartion of serfdom.. increase of population in the villages is so great that the land belonging to the "mirs" or local communes is insufficient to support all the members. The Government, with the view of remedying the evil, proposes to allocate to the peasants vast tracts of land, under conditions similar to those of serf tenure. One-third of the harvest is to be stored in the communal magazines for the support of the peasants; one-third is to be sold by the Government for the payment of local debts to the State, and one-third is to be retained for the payment of Government taxes. The peasants will not be allowed to move from their communes, but will be bound to the soil and will be obliged to fulfill their contracts with the State. #@# NY TImes 2Apr1877 Socialistic Spectre of Europe p4 There exist everywhere on the Continent large classes of men whos eposition is almost that of the serfs and artisans of the Middle Ages; who though no longer dependent personally on a master, are entirely dependent on capital, and who in a moment, by change in the currents of business and production, may be plunged into abject misery.. To them property, as at present divided, seems robbery, and commerce and manufacture a means of enriching the capitalists and improving the laborers. THe half-educated leaders of the masses take advantage of these feelings and prejudices.. In Great Britain, where inequality of distribution of property is greatest, we might reasonably expect to find most of Socialism.. profound disinclination of the people to theoretic views, when applied to politics or social life.. In France, though French peasantry are really now the most conservative body in Europe as to property.. The two countries, however, where these ideas of communism ferment with most peril to future stability are Russia and Germany.. Socialism there is not a modern revolutionary and foreign idea. It is simply an endeavor to return to the pure and ancient Slavonic practice. It is in the highest degree patriotic and Russian in character.. The Slavonic mir, or commune, is a "survival" of a fossil age when all Europe lived in communities, and each German or British village owned its lands iin common. The present agitation in the Muscovite Empire, and throuout the Slavonic countries, is to restore the old - the Pan-Slavic Commune. It has within it the aspiration of modern and radical Socialism - the passion of race and reverence for the established and the historical #@# Atkinson, EndRuLandCommune Stanford 1983 p6 early Slavic assembly known as the veche.. democratic gatherings of the populace, decisions were adopted by the unanimous agreement of the assembled community. When disussions failed to produce the obligatory unanimity, the recalcitrants settled issues by force: in the famous Novgorod veche, for example, opposing mobs battled on the bridge over the Volkhov, attempting to topple each other into the river. The same notion of forced unanimity as a guarantor of ultimate peace prevailed in the small world of the modern commune, where decisions reached by the collective were not only demonstrably enforceable, but morallybinding on the individual. As the proverb put it, "What the commune orders, God ordains." Modern investigators of the redistributive commune believe that its development can be traced from the late fifteenth or sixteenth century.. In the peasant view, it has been said, cultivated land belonged to those whose energy had created it from wilderness p7 In the course of time communes assumed the right to distribute vacant and escheated land, and they began to play a stronger role in the land affairs of the peasantry. This development paralleled the government's gradual assertion of a proprietary sovereignty over all land, for the poperty rights of individual households were subsumed under those of the commune just as the rights of more powerful landholders were superseded by those of the state. In the middle of the sixteenth century, administrative reforms enacted by Ivan IV offered communes broad powers of self-rule under the zemisto system, an optional arrangement giving pasants the right to elect local officials, who were then responsible to the state for maintaining public order and collecting taxes. The responsibilites were to prove more durable than the rights.. landlords tried to bind peasants to their properties by debt contracts. Many peasants lost their freedom in this fashion. In e troubled later yearsof the sixteenth century, many peasantsfled the harsh conditions of life in the central regions to try their luck on the open steppes and on the frontiers. Desertion of the land threatened not only the class available for state service, but the state itself. In order to secure a stable work force and to assure tax revenues, the state began to introduce regulations that deprived peasants of geographical mobility by requiring them to maintain permanent residence on the estate or property where the cadastral registers had recordedtheir names. By the mddle of the seventeenth century enserfment was fully established. The failure of the tentative mid-sixtenth-century attempt to create a stronger popular bas under the autocracy through administrative reform meant the loss of peasant freedoms but did not lead to the disappearance of the commune p8 it was convenient to tax a community of serfs or state peasants as a whole, and to make the commune collectively responsible for paying the total amount due.. new attack on the budgetary problem, in 1722 Peter introduced a direct tax on individual "souls" - nonnoble, tax-paying males p9 Once the tax was fixed and equal for all individual households, however, the commune could no longer adjust the tax load in proportion to lanfholdings, but had to adjust landholdings in proportion to the tax. Instead of being considered simply a basis for assessmant, land began to be considered a means enabling peasants to pay taxes, just as it was a means enabling estate holders to provide the military or administrative service they were obliged to render in place of taxes.. At the same time, estate owners began to base their demands for labor and dues on the size of the workforce in a serf household. As a result, in the eighteenth century the tiaglo was gradually transformed into a unit of labor entitled to (or obliged to accept) a given amount of land and accountable for specific obligations p10 To the extent that redistibution improved the ability of he poorer households to meet their obligations, it heightened the utility of the commune to all landlords.. Following the Pugachev rebellion, a major peasant uprising in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, administrative officials under Catherine II introduced land redistribution in communes in the north, hoping both to increase tax receipts and to promote rural tranquility.. Alhtough there were differences in the size of holdings within the commune, land redistribution sharply limited the range of social differentiation among the peasants by repeatedly impoving the position of the bottom stratum at the expence of the top. Therefore, even though it did not raise from an "egalitarian spirit," over the course of time the practice fostered the development of a social concept of egalitarianism p20 On the Western[ist] side, nineteenth-century historians of the "state school" (notable B N Chicherin, S M Solov'ev, and K D Kavelin) argued that the modern commune had been created by the state as a "fiscal-administrative device" by a series of measures traceable perhaps tot he late fifteenth or sixteenth century. The modern commune took definitive shape only in the eighteenth century, in their view, and had little relation to ancient Russian communes, in which the distinctive practice of land redistribution was unknown. The Slavophiles (for example K S Aksakov, A S Khomiakov, and I D Beliaev), on the other hand, insisted that the contemporary commune was directly descended from ancient p21 proto-socialists Aleksandr Herzen and Nikolai Chernyshevsky were writing in praise of the commune. Herzen's articles, smuggled in from abroad, reached the topmost levels of the government. Raising the spectre of renewes Pugachevshchina, a vast peasant uprising, he effectively exploited upper-class fears that social unrest might follow the disappearance of the commune. Chernyshevsky, the remarkable journalist who was soon to become the social conscience of radial youth, agreed on the desirability of retaining the commune. Formulating the problem in Hegelian terms, he suggested that under favorable conditions Russia might pass via the contemporary commune from lower foms of communal landholding to the highest socialist form, skipping the "negation" of private poperty. Such arguments in support of the commune brought the nascent revolutionary undergorund into uneasy alignment with the tradition-oriented Salvophiles p22 The debate on the commune set a precedent by involving historiographic questions in the determination of policy on social reform. Yet the ultimate determinants of emancipation policy on the commune were undoubtedly the practical implications of its abolition. Long reliance on the commune in matters of local jurisdiction and tax collection left the state with inadequate administrative machinery to replace it.. Both conservatives and radicals supported the commune, and even most of its liberal opponents were in favor of retaining it temporarily. No surprisingly, then, the emancipation statute of February 19, 1861, preserved the commune p24 At any rate, the Statute of february 19, 1861, made no provision for the conversion of private property into communal property, only for the reverse. Although the legislation did not disturb the predominant redisributional tenure, most members of the commission acknowledged th adverse consequences of communal land redistribution, noting that it led to excessive frgmentation of holdings and stifled incentive to make improvements on the land. The commission discussed the merits of prohibiting or restricting land redistribution, but finally agreed that the numerous exceptions required would clutter the legislation wit excessive detail. Instead, it decided merely to discourage redistributions by requiring that each be approved by a large majority of the householders within a commune p26 Besides retaining the commune, the emancipation legislation stated that the peasant - rather, the peasant household - was not merely granted a share of communal lands but was obliged to accept them, along with a corresponding tax burden and mutual responsibility for the taxes of the entire commune. A peasant who wanted to leave, even temporarily, for outside work was dependent on the commune for a passport. On the other hand, a peasant in arrears in his payments could be sent out to work by the commune. Despite emancipation, then, there were still serious constraints on the geographical mobility of the peasantry p28 "the Emancipation waslargely responsible for the social and economic crisis that resulted in the Russian Revolution" #@# Peasant19cRu Vicinich Stanford 1968 Peasant & Village Commune, Francis M Watters [orig Berkeley PhD thesis] p138 By the sixteenth century the mir had become the agent of the lord, the vehicle for implementing his directives, and, in terms of the peasants' obligations, the unit that was collectively responsible to him. In 1724 the state, by imposing the soul tax, gavee impetus to the practice of collective repartitional land tenure. In order to be assured of the ability of the peasant to pay the soul tax, the landlord assessed the tax on the basis of the tiaglo, a term that referred not only to the financial burden of the soul tax, but also to the unit of labor responsible for the payment of the tax and to the allotment of land assigned to his unit of labor. The tiaglo varied from household to household, depending on the number of able-bodied laborers in each. As the number of laborers in the various households of a village community changed over time as a result of births and deaths, a redistribution of the tiaglo within the community would be undertaken to equalize the tax burden on the households and the ability of the households to pay the tax in relation to their allotments of land. In the eighteenth century, local officials were known to intervene in matters of land tenure to assure a sufficiently equal distributions of land to facilitate payment of the tax; by orders of such officials, land in certain areas was confiscated or newly cleared for this purpose p152 The disadvantage of communal land tenure were manifold. While the peasant was assured of the right to cultivate a share of land belonging tot he village, he was deprived of security in the occupancy of a specific area of land; to the extent that he lacked such security, his interest in increasing his investment in his enterprise and in preserving the fertility of the soil was correspondingly reduced. The proponents of the obschina argued that it assured the peasant of his right to land and provided Russia with an avenue of development that would avoid the creation of a landless proletariat. However, it denied the peasant the security that was essential tot he improvement of his lot and to the increasing productivity of agriculture in general.. An optimal system of land tenure should afford the cultivator both the incentives and the opportunities to increase his output and his investment in his enterprise. High rents, ocnfiscatory taxes, usurious interest rates, and burdensome debts all serve to impede him. All of these impediments were to be found in the peasant land system in RUssia following the emancipation. It was within this highly inflexible, rigid, and restrictive pattern of land tenure - apaattern supported by government decree and butressed by a widely held belief that it wasintrinsically valuable - that the peasant faced the last decades of the nineteenth century. The history of rural Russia during these years can be characterized by two terms: "the agrarian crisis" and "the peasant question," both of which referred to the growing privation and misery of the peasant class and the mounting pressure for a change of official policy relating to the agricultural sector of the economy p157 obschina prevented the introduction of rational policies in agriculture, policies that would have resulted in a more flexible allocation of human and non-human resources and, no doubt, would have led to technological improvements and increased output. THe efforts of the peasants to supplement their allotment holdings by leasing and purchasing land stand in testimony to the need for a less rigind system of land tenure.. condemned the peasants to increasing poverty in the last decades of the nineteenth century. This poverty was the price the peasants paid for continued rigid control of rural Russia by the autocracy through the obschina and the land captain Zenkovsky. Stolypin 1986 ISBN 0-440670-25-9 pp12-3 By the measures contained in the law of November 9. 1906, Stolypin obtained passage of a law about land tenure through the legislative institutions. The Land Tenure Commission was entrusted witht he following tasks: 1. securing land for peasantry as inalienable property; 2. consolidation of assigned land into single plots; 3. creation of farmsteads (that is, special properties); and, 4. developing alternatives to strip farming, and assigning land as property of individual peasants. Striving toward creation of a private peasant economy, Stolypin directed the attention of the Land Tenure Commission toward the necessity for encouraging, in every possible way, the creation of farmsteads as well as separation from communes. An individual member of the commune would, upon leaving it, receive that land alloted to him by local tradition, retaining his proportionate share in the pastures, forests, and other conveniences of the commune. The Land Tenure Commission was composed of the Marshals of the Nobility, chairmen of district land boards, individual representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture, members of the district courts, local agricultural leaders, three elected representatives from the peasants, and representatives of the communes where the work was being carried out. In the course of seven years it apportioned a total area of some 12 million desiatines to nearly 1.2 million households.. The speaker for the Agrarian Committee, Octobrist S I Shidlovskii, pointed out that the new agrarian law represented a return to the true liberal path of reform of Alexander II, the path from which authority had departed in the time of reaction #@# Redfield Peasant Society 1956 Chicago LC56-6654 p11 anthropologist no longer studies a primitive isolate.. takes the subway and studies a community of Boston Armenians.. it is cheap p27 I shall call peasants who have, at the least, this in common: their agriculture is a livelihood and a way of life, not a business p53 In peasant societies as in primitive, many links are those of kinship, but the mesh is wider and looser. In French Canada, the peasant travels, but travel is to visit relatives p55 In Punjab, for example, "each village is said to have a traditional set of villages to whom its girls regularly go in marriage and another set from which it regularly receives wives." p59 The more primitive is the man likely to enter modern industry when it is established in his country; the landowning peasant, with a way of life already in stable adjustment to many aspects of civilization, is more resistant to industrialization p65 peasant admits his relative inferiority as to culture and manners but naturally claims the virtue accorded him and sees the city man as idle, or false, or extravagant. He sees himself as low with regard to the common culture but nevertheless with a way of life morally superior to that of the townsman p73 Every aspect of tribal life is everybody's business p94 Fifteen of nineteen festivals celebrated in Kishan Garhi are sanctioned in universal Sanskrit texts. But some of the local festivals have no place in Sanskrit teaching.. This kind of syncretization is familiar to students of panagism and Christianity or to students of Islam in its relations to local cults in North Africa p106 Oscar Handlin [Uprooted,1951,p7], reviewing the peasant qualities that immigrants brought to North America, asserts that "from the westernmost reaches of EUrope, in Ireland, in Russia in the east, the peasant masses had maintained an imperturbable sameness. He then describes that sameness: everywhere a personal bond with the land; attachment to an integrated village or local community; central importance of the family; marriage a provision of economic welfare; patrilocal residence and descent in the male line; a strain between the attachment to the land and the local world and the necessity to raise money crops.. recent French writer.. peasant and remote peasant are more alike than are city man and peasant in the same country p112 Among peasants of nineteenth-century England, present-day Yucatan, and ancient Boeotia, I seemd to find a cluster of three closely related attitudes or values: an intimate and reverent attitude toward the land; the idea that agricultural work is good and commerce not so good; and an emphasis on productive industry as a prime virtue p117 THe possibility presents itself that around the Mediterranean Sea the prestige of the town, the polis, carried with it at an early date the peasant's distaste for agricultural life [ditto Abe Lincoln; obsessive commercial Mediterranean & North Sea peoples rescued most Jews from Nazis, yet paranoid inland peasant communities betrayed them] p125 Maya villager's remark to me that "one should care for the land as for a wife and family" [Russian "mother" land] when I read the parallel injunction in Hesiod: "First of all get a house and a woman an an oxe for the plough" p137 In every part of the world, generally speaking, peasantry have been a conservative factor in social change, a brake on revolution, a check on that disintegration of local society which often comes with rapid technological change #@# Keyes Peasant Strategies in Asian Societies JAsnStd 8/83 42#4 p753 In an essay entitled "Village Reconstruction," first delivered as a lecture in Dutch in 1952, J H Boeke.. conjures up a framework of thought that has had a powerful influence on those interested in interpreting the lives of Asian villages buffeted by the forces associated with the expansion of a global capitalist economy. Before this expansion, Asian villagers were assumed to have carried out their lives within the confines of rural communities in which a communal spirit was so deeply rooted that it was taken as "natural" p[???] Constrained by "the vagaries of weather and the claims of outsiders" (scott [Moral Economy of the Peasant, Yale] 1976; 4), peasant cultivators are conscious that they live near the margin of scarcity. They therefore prefer to avoid risks that would threaten their basic subsistence. Rather than seeking to maximize the well being of themselves and their families, Scott argues, they commit themselves to a moral economy predicated on two principles "that seem firmly embedded in both the social patterns and injunctions of peasant life: the norm_of_reciprocity and the right_to_subsistence. THere is good reason," Scott continues, "for viewing both the norm of reciprocity and the right to subsistence as genuine moral components of the "little tradition," that is, of peasant culture universally. "reciprocity serves as a central moral formula for interpersonal conduct. The right to subsistence, in effect, defines the minimal needs that must be met for members of the community within the context of reciprocity" (Scott 1976; 167; empasis in original) #@# Edral & Whiten [St Andr Scot] Human Egalitarianism Curr_Anthro 35#2 1994 p176 Hunter-gatherer ethnographic data suggests that the social environment was one of small mobile foraging groups in which most people were related, people knew each other intimately, strangers rarely being encountered, and food and other resources were shared... universality of egalitarianism in hunter-gatherers suggests that it is an ancient, evolved human pattern p177 Although effective individuals are recognised and generally heeded, the function of leadership remains situational and is not tranformed into a permanent social role with distinct status. When leading individuals attempt to achieve personal dominance through making such a transformation, they are brought down several pegs by those around them, and they are never "obeyed" (Riches 1982:74). But this is best characterised as "counterdominant" behaviour rather than a reversal of hierarchy.. In hunter-gatherer conditions the fitness advantage provided by food sharing is the reduction of risk (Lovejoy 1981, Wiessner 1982, Cashdan 1985, Smith 1988).. Envy and jealousy are sometimes observed to be important in this process of sharing (eg Marshal 1976 [Sharing, talking and giving, Kalahari !Kung San in Lee & deVore Harvard], 1961]:368; Briggs [Never in Anger,Eskimo, Harvard] 1970:47; Tanaka [San hunter-gatherers of the Kalahari, U Tokyo] 1980:113) p178 eventually the maintenance of direct dominace would have become prohibitively costly in time and/or energy. Under these circumstances there would have ben a fitness advantage to the strategy of "vigilant sharing" or "playing fair" - of resisting dominance by others but not attempting to achieve dominace oneself #@# Macey Govt&PeasRu 1861-1906 1987 ISBN 0-87580-122-6 p24 This process gained further impetus by a series of measures, initiated by Interior Minister Tolstoi, designed to expand the government's role in local administration, inhibit the role of the market forces within the commune, yet foster individual economic initiative. Paradoxically, hjowever, although he was critical of the commune as an economic institution, he ultimately strengthened the commune's administrative role and increased the government's reliance on it. Along witht he better known K P Pobedonosteev, Count D A Tolstoi is usually seen as the evil genius behind Alexander III's reign and the principal architect of the so-called counterreforms p25 The most important of the measures initiated by Tolstoi was the establishment, in 1889, of a new official, the land captain (zemskii nachal'nik), in response to what he perceived as a breakdown of authority in the countryside and the failure of the Emancipation's experiment in peasant self-government. The remedy for this situation was modeled on the autocratic principles of personal and absolute power and was vested with joint police, administrative, and judicial authority. In addition, he had the utmost flexibility in interpreting the law so as to make it conform to local conditions. Within his own district, the land captain was indeed a "little tsar" p26 to enforce the goverment's prohibition on usury, which set the maximum interest for loans at 12 percent, as well as its ban on grain speculation in times of crop failure. he was also to ensure that family members fulfilled their moral obligations to one another.. he had no authority to intervene in the peasants' economic life. A proposal that he regulate periodical repartitions was dropped quickly lest such a violation of nonintervention delay the legislation's passage.. growth in the number of families in that period had outpaced the rate of growth of the whole population, in some areas by nearly foru times. Consequently, there had been a reduction in the average size of the family and an increase in the number of those with only one adult male worker p27 Meanwhile, under the influence of a rising revolutionary movement at home and such European developments as the revolutions of 1848, the Paris Commune of 1871, and the rapid development of labor movements and labor-oriented political parties, the goverment's fears about the social consequences of capitalism were paralleled by a new fear of socialism. Rather like later Marxists, some members of the government seem to have begun looking on capitalism as but the precursos of a socialist order.. Unwilling to accept this logic, the government was driven to find a thrid way that would enable it to reoncile the developments of a modern industrial society with an autocratic social and political system p30 laws of 1886 and 1893 served to reinforce the peasants' legal isolation, immobility, and traditional agricultural practices. In effect, the soslovie principle had been extended to every aspect of the individual peasant's existence, condemning him to near total civil and juridical dependence on the commune and reserfing [compare Jim Crow] him to the land. In the process, the commune became transformed into a permanent and virtually inviolable feature of peasant society while its various functions as administrative unit, landowner, and land user became indissolubly linked, reinforcing its role as the government's principal instrument for the preservation of rural order #@# Moral Economy Peasant J C Scott 1976 Yale ISBN 0-300-01862-2 p2 If the Great Depression left an indelible mark on the fears, values, and habits of a whole geenration of Americans, can we imagine the impact of periodic food crisies on the fears, values, and habits of rice farmers in monsoon Asia? The fear of food shortages has, in most precapitalist peasant societies, given rise to what might appropriately be termed a "subsistence ethic". This ethic, which Southeast Asian peasants shared witht heir counterparts in nineteenth-century France, Russia, and Italy, was a consequence of living so close to the margin p3 social_arrangemetns served the same puprose. Patterns of reciprocity, forced generosity, communal land, and work-sharing helped to even out the inevitable troughs in a family's resources which might otherwise have thrown them below subsistence p5 It is this "safety-first" principle which lies behind a greta many of the technical, social, and moral arrangements of a precapitalist agrarian order.. Withing the village contaxt, a wide array of social arrangements typically operated to assure a minimum income to inhabitants. The existence of communal land that was periodically redistributed, in part on the basis of need, or the commons in European villages functioned in this way. In addition, social pressures within the precapitalist village had a certain redistributive effect: rich peasants were expected to be charitable, to sponsor more lavish celebrations, to help out temporarily indigent kin and neighbors, to give generously to local shrines and temples. As Michael Lipton [JDvSt 4 (1969) 341]has noted, "many superficially odd village practices make sence as disguised forms of insurance".. The modest but critical redistributive machanisms nonetheless do provide a minimal subsistence insurance for villages. Polanyi claims on the basis of historical and anthropological evidence that such practices were nearly universal in traditional society and served to mark it off from the modern market economy. He concludes, "It is the absence of the threat of individual starvation which makes primitive society, in a sence, more human than market economy, and at the same time less economic" [GrXfm 1957 163-4] p6 Barrington Moore [Soc Orig 497-8] has captured the normative tone of these expectations:"..standards is a crude notion of equality, stressing the justice and necessity of a minimum of land.. some sort of religious sanction, and it is likely to be in their stress on these points that the religion of peasants differs from that of other social classes" p7 tenant prefers to minimizer the probablity of disaster rather than to maximize his average return.. rate his needs as a consumer as primary p9 In Europe, moreover, as Polanyi eloquently shows, the indigenous forces which has much more to lose from a full market economy (including at times, the crown, portions of the aristocracy, artisans, peasants, and workers) were occassionally able to impede or at least restrict the play of market forces by invoking th eolder moral economy. In Germany and Japan the creation of strong conservative states allowed what Moore has called "a revolution from above" which kept as much of the original social structure intact as possible while still modernizing the economy. The results, while laying the ground for fascism and militarism at a later date, were somewhat less traumatic in the short run for the peasantry.. precapitalist community was, in a sense, organized aroyund this problem of the minimum income - organized to minimize the risk to which its members were exposed by virtue of its limited techniques and the caprice of nature. Traditional forms of patron-client relationships, perspective, and redistributive mechanisms may even be seen from this perspective p10 In more recent times, of course, the state itself has assumed the role of providing for a minimum income with such devices as countercyclical fiscal policy, unemployment compenastion, welfare programs, social medicine, and the negative income tax. One effect of these guarantees, incidentally, has been to make it more rational for individuals to engage in profit-maximizing behavior.. moral economy of the subsistence ethic can be clearly seen in the themese of peasant protext throughout this period. Two themes prevailed: first, claims on the peasant incomes by landlords, moneylenders, or the state were never legitimate when they infringed on what was judged to be the minimal culturally defined subsistence level; and second, the product of the land should be distributed in such a way that all were guaranteed a subsistence niche. The appeal was in almost every case to the past - to traditional practices - and the revolts I discuss are best seen as defensive reactions p11 It was the smallness of what was left rather than the amount taken (the tow are obviously related, but by no means are they identical) that moved peasants to rebel p14 pay more to buy or rent land than capitalist investment criteria would indicate. A land-poor peasant with a large family and few labor outlets is often willing to pay huge prices for land, or "hunger rents," as Chayanov [Peas Eco 10,28,171] calls the, so long as the additional land will add something to the family larder. In fact, the less land a family has, the more it will be willing to pay for an additional piece: a competitive process that may drive out capitalist agriculute which cannot compete on such terms p15 larger the family (more mouths to feed and more hands to work), the larger the marginal product of any additional land and, hence, the larger the marginal product of any additional land and, hence, the larger the maximum rent the family is willing to pay. Because of its near-zero opportunity cost and its need to reach an adequate subsistence, the peasant household will work for very low implicit wages p33 At the core of popular protest movements of urban and rural poor in eighteenth- and ninetenth-century Europe was not so much a radical belief in equality of wealth and landholding but the more modest claim of a "right to subsistence" - a claim that became increasingly self-conscious as it was increasingly threatened p42 What is notable is that the normative order of the village imposes certain standrds of performance on its better-off members p43 Occassionally, where the commintarian tradition was strongest, most notably Tonkin, Annam, and Java, the subsistence ethic took the form of village rights over land. An average of roughly 25 percent of the land in Tonkin and Annam was communal land, and in Quang Tri and Quang Binh provinces the figure was over 50 percent of paddy land. [Henry, Hanoi, 1932, pp43-44] Some of this land was allotted more or less on the basis of need to poor vuillagers. TH erent from communal land was developed in part to help the poor pay taxes and to support noncultivating widows and orphans. Elsewhere, rights to cultivate local wasteland within the vllage domain, grazing rights, gleaning rights, and the customary rule that no outside tenants or laborers be engages if a needy villager could be found, all served the same end of enabling the village poor to scrape by p176 Insofar as power relations within the village permitted, these rights to subsistence tended to be observed in the precapitalist agrarian order. Attituded toward systems of tenancy and the obligations of landlords in both Lower Burma and Vietnam also turned on the duty of the landowner to provide for the minimum material needs of his tenants. We can do no better that to recall the words of the sharecropper quoted earlier: "A man of his means was supposed to loan his tenants rice and help when times were hard. That's part of being a landlord." p177 The right to subsistence took concrete form in the doctrine of the "just price" tied to wages and in the prctice of the Russian mir whose members redistributed land at regular intervals in accordance with family size. Pitt-Rivers, describing Andalusia, states the operating assumption of many of these practices: "The idea that he who has must give to him who has not is not only a precept of religion, but a moral imperative of the pueblo." p238 For this reason, those who are least favored by a social order and its ethical rationale ar emost likely to be attracted to a new creed that offers them a place of dignity and a competing great tradition. Christian missions thus found a more sympathetic response among the lower castes in the Hindu hierarchy and among the minority peoples in SOutheast Asia, considered by the dominant groups as less than fully civilized. In contemporary Jave it is reported that Buddhism has made strong inroads among abangan peasants in areas most decimated by the repression of late 1965. Not much is known about this religious transformation yet, but it seems likely that many peasants have chosen to formalize their opposition to the self-conscious Moslem community by leaving Islam altogether.. Methodist chapels of the English working class helped provide the social soil in which unionism could grow p239 Peasant rebels in Russia were often as devoted tot he Czar as they were repelled by the rapaciousness of his subordinates #@# NY Times 2Jul1876 Russian Village Commune p4 As an organ of local administration, the rural Commune in Russia is very simple and primitive.. Their salaries are fixed by the Commune, and are so small that "office" in these village democracies is regarded rather as a burden than as an honor; but a peasant, when once chosen, must serve whether he desires it or not.. When matters of great importance are under consideration, the heads of houses alone take an active part in the discussion.. frequently happens that the patria_potestas is in the hands of the oldest brother or of the mother.. In the northern provinces, where a large part of the adult male population annually leaves home in search of work, the female representatives sometimes compose the majority.. Toward afternoon, when all have enjoyed their after-dinner siesta - or it may be, immediately after the mornign service - the villagers may be seen strolling leisurely toward a common point. Arrived atthe village Forum, they cluster together in little groups, and talk in homely fashion about the matter they have met to consider. The various groups pay not attention to each other till gradually one particular group, containing some of the more intelligent and influential members, begins to exercise an attractive force, and the others gravitate toward this centre of energy. In this way the meeting is constituted, or, more strictly speaking, spontaneously constitutes itself; and the same absence of formality continues all through the proceesdings.. subjects brought before these meetings are of the most varied kind, for the Village Assembly has no idea of laws limiting its competence, and is ever ready to discuss anything affecting directly or indirectly the communal welfare.. Rarely, if ever, is it necessary to put the question tot he vote. As soon as it has become evident what the general opinion is, the Elder says tot he crowd: "Well, Orthodox! you have deemed so!" #@# Soil & Soul Hellberg-Hirn Ashgate 1998 ISBN 1-85521-871-2 p113-4 From the Muscovite to the Imperial period, Russian society grew increasingly patriarchal and rigidly hierarchical, yet among the peasantry pagan matrilocal beliefs persisted.. cult of Mokosh continued among Russian women right up to the present century, resisting the imprecations of the Christian missionaries who thundered against women who sacrificed to Mokosh.. tsaritsa of all creation p117 moral orientation of the Russian peasant: "Your first mother is Bogoroditsa [Virgin Mary], your second mother is the earth; and your third mother is your own mother."... concept of motherhood was crucial to the peasant's concern with fertility p126 adherents of the female myth of Russian nationhood persist in seeing the essence of Russia in submissive and suffering passivity, as if she were an eternal baba always 'awaiting her bridegroom', a hero who will redeem and deliver her, be it the Varangian Prince, the Byzantine priest, Western Enightenment, German socialism or the European market p127 expansive character, shirota natury, boldness, udal', strength, sila, and daring, smelost, are exactly the qualities most prized by Russians p128 "Appealing to Russia, Soloviev said: Which kind of East do you wish to be: The East of Xerxes or of Christ" p129 soul of Russian nature abides in forests and fields of ripening rye p200 widely travelled aristocrat and a champion of Westernization, Karamzin was deeply shocked by the French Revolution.. autocracy as the only power to ensure the evolutionary development.. for Karamzin, the difference between samoderzhaviie (autocracy) and samovlastiie (tyranny) - whether practiced by the ruler, by th eoligarchy, or by the people - was a crucial one [compare Edmund Burke].. Pushkin proclaimed, however, that Karamzin in his Istoriia simply and elegantly proves the necessity of tyranny and the pleasures of the whip, prelesti knuta.. contemporary poet Viazemskii, who wrote: "Karamzin saved Russia from oblivion and proved that we have a fatherland, as many of us learned in 1812" p201 elite were sadly lacking in factual knowledge of their country and people.. December 1825 (sometimes called the first Russian revolution), when hopes of liberal reform and a constitutional monarchy were crushed.. elite now wstranged from the state, found a sense of personal closeness to, even worship of, the people p204 "unkown in the West, that of sobornost or 'conciliarism' (Khomiakov). This was a form of true fellowship, a 'free unity' of believers that precluded both self-willed individualism and its restaint by coercion" [cit Walicki 1979:95-96].. 'ancient Russian freedom' had nothing in common with 'republican liberty'.. Konstantin Aksakov. Republican libery, he argued, was political freedom, which presupposed the people's active participation in political affairs; ancient Russian freedom, on the other hand, meant freedom_from_politics [how Platonic and unAristotellian!] - the right to live according to unwritten laws of faith and tradition, and the right to full self-realization in a moral sphere on which the state would not impinge. The people could be sure of complete freedom to live and think as they pleased, while the monarch had complete freedom of action in the political sphere. This relationship depended entirely on moral convictions rather than on legal.. Aksakov wanted every individual to submit totally to his mir p205 Schelling and Herder.. Chaadaev in _Apology, and you will see that each important fact in Russian history is a fact that was forced on us.. affinities between Germany and Russia: both faced the need to modernize at a time when capitalism was already growing in other European countries and had begun to reveal its negative features, which gave them a broader perspective and made it easier to "idealize the patriarchal traditions and archaic social structures that in their countries had shown an obstinate vitality" [107] The Slavophiles, longing to unite Russia's soil and soul, discovered Russianness first and foremost in the Orthodox [98] p216 Russian way implied holiness, sin, guilt, and repentance.. Sergei Bulgakov, who eventually became known as an eminent Orthodox theologian, warned against repeating bot Slavophiles' and Westerners' mistakes.. doomed to oscillate between the extremes of popular idolatry and spiritual elitism p223 liberal press hoped to use the Pushkin Celebration of 1880 as an argument for constitutional reform, while conservative nationalists, notably Dostoevskii, "used the occasion to stimulate nationalist pride by eulogizing the writer's universality and messianism" p227 In the 1830s the Russian Idea was reanimated by the Slavophiles, and later, after Russia's defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-56, further developed by Vladimir Soloviev and Nikolai Danilevskii. While Soloviev insisted on the universal character of the Russian cultural mission, Danilevskii argued in Rossiia i Evropa (1869) thatthe Russiancultural heritage was unique and self-contained. Following the Slavophiles, Danilevskii believed in the promise of the Russian peasant commune.. [Dostoevsky:] "But a Russian is not only a European, he is also an Asiatic. Moreover: our hopes may belogn more to Asia than to Europe" #@# Russia & Soul Pesmen Cornell 2000 ISBN 0-8014-3739-3 p97 Spiraling complaining about how much food there used to be and what kinds, but we're not starving yet.. darkness of Russia's past, the shamefulness of her present, the absence of her future, how Jews were responsible for the Revolution..how everything will continue to decline until the red star is removed form the Kremlin "and until Lenin is buried, because he is roaming the country".. rumor that Saddam Hussein (who "has gone totally insane") is Stalin's lost grandson p283 Berdiaev rhapsodizes about how "The West is conciseness; everything favors the development of civilization...[but] Russian soul... corresponds to the immensity, the vagueness, the infinitude of Russian land." "For this reason," he continues, "Russian people have found difficulty in achieving mastery over these vast expanses and reducing them to orderly shape" #@# Nomads & Sedentary Castillo 1981 ISBN 968-12-0109-4 p31 livestock represents a resourse which the community could fall back on when the harvest failed.. sheep had to be got out of the arid steppes in the summer.. Inability to secure adequate summer pasture could well entail ruin and disintegration for the whole tribe. Until recent times, a nomadic tribe amounted virtually to a paramilitary.. deny the nomads summer pasture would be to invite armed confrontation.. p32 Akkadian term for these migratory groups is nawum. Both in West Semitic and in Akkadian, nawum denotes steppe and pasture as well as the animals living off the steppe and pasture. In Baylonia proper it denotes also the countryside between the cities. In Mari, however, it does not have either that meaning or the meaning "steppe," although it does retain the meaning "pasture." On the other hand, in Mari, it has yet another meaning, "encampment" p33 For the better part of two thousand years, from the Arab auxiliaries in the Roman army to the Arab legion in Transjordan, nomads are seen to be supplying recruits to the armies of urban society, often in return for allocation of fields.. Earlier still the same holds true for the Amorites in Babylonia.. Another prominent aspect of nomadic economy in the last two millenia is caravaneering and overland commerce p34 In the past, nomads have tended to supplement their income by taxing caravans and raiding those which refused to pay tribute; also they raid other tribes in order to supplement theor own livestock. All this raiding is basically an economic factor rooted in the physical environment and the element of economic risk inherent in it. In fact, among the Bedouin, raiding of this kind has to some extent become institutionalized, with certain conventions observed to minimize loss of life p35 Perhaps then we have to reckon with an implicit social compact between the nomads and the state. Essentially, this would have amounted to abstention from raiding caravans and raiding the livestock of the palace, in return for the guarantee of summer pasture #@# Rancour-laFerriere Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and Cult of Suffering ISBN 0-8147-7458-x NYU 1995 darancourlferriere@ucdavis.edu russian.ucdavis.edu/drl p25 self-immolation practiced by some Old Believers eventually became an emblem of Russia's dark side. Mussogorsky's great opera Khovanshchina, for example, is based on events surrounding the Old Believer schism, and ends with amass suicide by fare. Avvakum's autobiography exerted an enormous influence of the RUssian radical intelligensia p124 Sadistic attitudes toward the fool are very common in Russia. In general, it is assumed that a fool is someone who is beaten ofen, or who ought to be beaten or otherwise abused p215 The commune seems to have gained even more ocntrol over the lives of individual peasants after the emancipation of 1861 than it held previously. The emancipated peasant in most cases still was not able to own arable land, but depended on the commune to parcel it out periodically. The commune did not assign land, moreover, to the peasant as an individual, but to the extended peasant household on the basis of the number of "tiagla" per household. A "tiaglo" was usually a mrried couple between the ages of eighteen and sixty (sometimes land was assigned instead on the basis of the number of adult males per household, or the number of mouths to be fed) p223 In the meantime, however, psychological attitudes toward the land have not changed. In December of 1990, when the RUssian Parliament was taking steps for the privatization of farmland, President Boris Yaltsin made the following remarks to foreign correspondents: "You would never understand the spirit of Russians who never have become accustomed to the terminology and even more t the practice of selling and buying land - the motherland, as we call it." Yeltsin added: "As some legislators used to say, 'One can not sell his or her mother," "It is a psychological issue," declared the RUssian leader. THe traditional idea of teh Russian "land" as mother was thus alive and well late in the twentieth century. "You pick up the soil and it's like holding your mother's hand," said a collective farm worker to a reporter in 1988. THis is an extremely common sentiment in the Russian countryside p247 In his book on Dostoevsky Berdiaev says: "There is a hunger for self-destruction in the Russian soul, there is a danger of intoxication with ruin" #@# Russia 1812-1945, Graham Stephenson, Praeger 1969 p107 Zemstvo statute of January 1864. This created bodies at both the provincial (gubernia) and the district (uyezd) level. Following the Prussian model, the electors were divided into three classes, nobility, townsmen and peasantry p139 some of the most sensational verbal combats of the Moscow drawing-rooms were between Herzen and the Slavophil champion Khomyakov p140 By 1847, Herzen found his position in Moscow impossible simply because he could not agree with either party in the ideological struggle. It seemed to him intolerable that Old Russia should be dismantled merely to make room for a version of Victorian Manchester. To escape from his confusion he went abroad p141 Slavophil doctrines looked more inviting; at least the commune might save Russia from the blight of a middle-class society. The emancipated peasant, free p214 distinguished career ended in the Kiev opera where he was shot by Dmitry Bogrov, a man who was both revolutionary and police agent. It is still not known in which capacity Bogrov was acring on this occasion. Stolypin's high handed actions had made him enemies at court as well as in revolutionary circles p215 suspicion - which still remains no more than that - that Bogrev acted witht he connivance of Rasputin.. Stolypin's contructive policy was centered around his peasant reforms.. Under the impetus of a more efficient agriculture the Industrial Revolution moved forward.. By 1913 the value of industrial production was more than 50 per cent greater that it had been in 1909.. Tax receipts doubled between 1900 and 1914. After 1905 less state money went into railways and much more into rearmament.. Stolypin was a constitutionalist but not a parliamentarian; a nationalist but not a reactionary p250-1 Peace of Paris was the greatest check to Russian ambitions since the reign of Peter the Great. For the next fifteen years her foreign policy was dominated by a single motive - to escape from the Black Sea clauses.. Bismark rapidly grasped.. opportunity of the Polish revolt of 1863 to draw stillcloser to Russia.. against the possibility of the revival of the Crimean coalition in Poland [vs Bailey]. Britain and France had worked together to secure the independence of Italy in 1859; Russia feared that they might do the same in Poland. Alliance with Russia.. enabled Prussia to defeat Austria in 1866.. weakening of Austria and was consequently a further step towards the abolition of the Black Sea Clauses.. Russia took the opportunity of French defeat and British isolation to unilaterally reject the BLack Sea Clauses.. Gladstone (who had personally disapproved of the Clauses since 1856) was only concerned to defend the general sanctity of international agreements. He therefore summoned a conference which in 1871 legitimised the Russian action. This confirmed Russia's escape from the most humiliating result of the Crimean War. p253-4 much more influential form of post-Crimean Panslavism was preached by writer like Danilevsky (Russia and EUrope) and Fadeyev (Opinion on the Eastern Question).. THe past, they argued, had been dominated by the Latin and the German races; the future belonged tot he Slavs.. Russia must fulfil her destiny by conquering ancient Europe and saving her from herself.. The treacherous Austrian must be dislodged from the Balkans; this was the policy whcih Nicholas I had failed to pursue and the result was the Crimean defeat.. confused but Mesianic notions had great influence.. Slavonic Belevolent Committee.. Panslavism.. consoled Russians for their defeat in the Crimean War. It directed hostility against Austria, the power whose defection had led to that defeat pp255-6 N P Ignatiev to the key embassy at Constantinople.. (1864-77).. closely linked with one of the strongest centres of Panslav ideology, the Asiatic department of he Ministry of Foreign Affairs.. He was the despair of GOrchakov and the officials of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.. Balkan crisis of 1875-8 was not prepared in St Petersburg. Its immediate antecedent was a bad harvest which made it difficult for the peasants of Bosnia-Herzegovina to pay their taxes to Turkey.. conjunction with Austria, Russia forced Turkey to call an armistaice (October 1876) and a conference was held at Constantinople. The British delegate, Lord Salisbury, was notably less anti-Russain than his Prime Minister, Disraeli. He mananged to reach a compromise agreement with his Russian and Austrian colleagues but the Turs, sensing that Salisbury would not be backed by the British cabinet, refused to implement the agreement. How right they were is revealed by a letter written by Disraeli in December 1876: 'Sal. seems most prejudiced . . . . He is more Russian that Ignatieff'. Having failed to get a European backing for intervention in TUrkey, Gorchakov decided to neutralise Austria. He remembered the crusshing effect of Austrian hostility in the Crimean War. In January 1877, by the Budapest Convention, Austria declared that she would remain neutral in the event of a Russian invasion of TUrkey and agreed to accept Bosnia-Herzegovina as the price p257 But in Britain war fever reached new heights. Queen Victoria chided Disraeli for failing to send the fleet up to Constantinople.. 1878.. anchored in the Sea of Marmora [cq] some fifty miles away; at the same time the Russian army was quartered in San Stefano, ten miles from Constantinople.. exhaustion of the RUssian army.. Treaty of San Stefano (March 1878). In this treaty Serbia was abandoned - the Panslavs had been disgusted by teir feeble military performance. It was, besides, essential to leave the western Balkans to Austria. Instead Russia created a big Bulgaria which was to include all Macedonia and a part of Thrace.. Ivan Aksakov wrote that Bulgaria was 'much more important for us and for the future of Slavdom than Serbia'.. united Europe against Russia.. Britain found itself at last with some allies. Russia's military weakness made war against Europe unthinkable. San Stephano had to be abandoned and a fresh settlement negotiated with Bismark's aid at Berlin (July 1878) p257 Even before he arrived in Berlin Disraeli had persuaded Turkey to permit British occupation of Cyprus. From this base Britain claimed to exert a general proctectorship over Turkey-in-Asia.. Britain could move warships into the Black Seas at the simple request of the Turkish.. rightly regarded in Russia and Europe as a sign that Britain was still afflicted witht he disease of RUssophobia p260 1878 one of them, General Skobelev.. struggle is inevitable between the Teuton and the Slav p267 The Turkish army was virtually under German command and with German financial backing the Turkish fleet was the equal of Russia's.. For more that a century Russian statesmen had hoped to extend Russian power by seizing Constantinople. But in 1914, it seemed in St. Petersburg that Russian policy was defensive rather than expansionist. For Russia the Straits were a vital interest #@# Russian Negotiationg Behavior, Schecter, 1-878379-78X p24 Leites define the following as key elements of the Bolshevik Code: Politics is war. Push to the limit.. Pressure creates opportunities.. It pays to be rude.. Enemies cannot be persuaded to accept the Bolshevik position by rational means.. All politics is a life-death struggle of who will dominate whom p180 Insist on agreed-upon rules and procedures [tend to fuzz/change the goalpost], spelled out in detail with an ongoing verification process as part of the contract terms.. Russian diplomatic negotiators are proud and will promise the world but too often they cannot deliver. Like Russian business people, they lack resources and an adequate administrative support system #@# Randall, Reluctant Capitalists: Russia..Transition 0-415-92824-9 p27 property could be confiscated at the whim of the state. To counter any objection to this practice, the tsar's bureaucrats would simply claim that as the property ultimately belonged to the state, all activities derived from th eproperty also belonged tot he state. On the one hand, citizens had very limited rights in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Russia; on the other hand, the tsar had power and rights with no limit. As Giles Fletcher, and English visitor to Russia in the late 1500s, noted, even the merchant class was extremeley oppressed, heavily taxed, powerless, and so lethargic that they were no better off than the serfs p128 These contacts and networks had had an iportant business role during the Soviet era, but now they became even more vital. At the beginning of the reform, existing networks - informal mechanisms designed to handle the business process when irregularities showed up in the planned economic system - began to overshadow the new and inconsistently imposed formal market rules such as competition based on product and price and the absense of government price control and subsidy p129 "One of the problems that Western businesses find difficult to understand," he continued, "is the interpretation of liquidity in Russia. Money as a universal form of liquidity never was a fully accpeted principle in Russia. Contacts, titles, privileges got you access to supplies, goods, and services" (interview with Consulting Firm, St. Petersburg, 1992) #@# Weber ProtestantEth&SpirCaptlsm 1904..30 trTalcParsons 0-415-25406-x p26 The ability of mental concentration, as well as the absolutely essential feeling of obligation to one's job, are here most often combined with a strict economy wgich calculated the possibility of high earnings, and a cool self-control and frugality which enormously increase performance p37 And the joy and pride of having given employment to numerous people, of having had a part in the economic progress of his home town in the sense referring to figures of population and volume of trade which capitalism associated with the word, all these things obviously are part of the specific and undoubtedly inealistic satisfactions in life to modern men of business p41 renunciation of the duties of this world as the product of selfishness, withdrawing from temporal obligations. In contrast, labour in a calling appears to him as the outward expression of brotherly love.. moral justification of worldly activity.. worlds removed from the deep [Catholic] hatred.. for all worldly activity, which he was deeply convinced could only be understood in terms of vanity or low cunning p64 Brotherly love, since it may be practised for the glory of God and not in the service of flesh, is expressed in the first place in the fulfilment of the daily tasks.. peculiarly objective and impersonal character, that of service in the interest of the rational organization of our social environment.. labour in the service of impersonal social usefulness appear to promote the glory of God p69 however useless good works might be a a means of attaining salvation, for even the elect remain beings of the flesh, and everything they do falls infiniteyl short of divine standards, nevertheless, they are indispensable as a sign of election.. technical means, not of purchasing salvation, but of getting rid of the fear of damnation.. helps those who help themselves.. systematic self-control which at every moment stands before the inexorable alternative p74 Sebastian Franck struck the central characteristic of this type of religion when he saw the significance of the Reformation in the fact that now every Christian had to be a monk all his life. The drain of asceticism from everyday worldly life had been stopped by a dam, and those passionately spiritual natures which had formerly supplied the highest type of monk were now forced to pursue their ideals within mundane occupations p104 [Cromwellian Puritan Baxter] Waste of time is thus the first and in principle the deadliest of sins. The span of human life is infinitely short and precious to make sure of one's own election. Loss of time through sociability, idle talk, luxury, even more sleep than is necessary for health, six at most eight hours, is worthy of absolute moral condemnation p107 True to the Puritan tendency to pragmatic interpretations, the providential purpose of the division of labour is to be known by its fruits. On this point Baxter expresses himself in terms which more that directly recall Adam Smith's well-known apotheosis of the division of labour. The specialization of occupations leads, since it makes the development of skill possible, to a quantitative and qualitative improvement in production, and thus serves the common good, which is identical with the good of the greatest possible number p110 Old Testament morality was able to give a powerful impetus to that spirit of self-righteousness and sober legality which was so characteristic of the worldly asceticism of thi sform of Protestantism.. characterize the basic ethical tendency of Puritanism, especially in England, as English Hebraism they are, correctly understood p112 Impulsive enjoyment of life, which leads away both from work in a calling and from religion, was as such the enemy of rational asceticism, whether in the form of seigneurial sports, or the enjoyment of the dance-hall or the public-house of the common man p115 But this irrational use [of wealth] was exemplified in th eoutward forms of luxury which their code condemned as idolatry of the flesh, however natural they had appeared to the feudal mind. On the other hand, they approved the rational and utilitarian uses of wealth which were willed by God for the needs of the individual and the community #@# van den Haag Capitalism:Src Hostlty 1979 Epoch 0-89948-000-4 p28 [vdHaag, New School] Hence intellectuals long for and have often desigmed utopias, generated by reason and desire, though bereft of reality or even possibility. They would reward morally valuable activites - their own kind of activities - rather than economic ones. Unfortunately such unworldy and incorruptible designs have fostered the institution of corrupt worldly systems p36 Wealth now produces guilt feelings as often as comfort. The rich seldom feel that their wealth is deserved; their children almost never do p42 Unlike the visible, manual controls of planners, automatic mechanisms - whether markets or a natural order functioning by itself, not planned and presided over by God - seems morally unintelligible and psychologically desolate, precisely because it is "meaningless to describe [them] as just or unjust" p47 [Starr, NYU] root of much - perhaps not all, but much - of the hostility to free markets comes from man's difficulty in dealing with the most human of activities, th emaking of conscious choices.. great fear that one will be stuck with the consequences of one's choices p64 [Bauer, Cambridge] most of its history, British colonial rule was, on the whole, one of limited governmnet - paternalistic and authoritarian, yet limited. But in the closing years of British colonialism, extensive and pervasive governmnet controls came to be introduced.. ready-made framework of a dirigiste or even totalitarian state was handed over by the British to the incoming independent governments p101 [Glazer, Harvard] abstraction of a partially remembered or imagined community of the past [obschina] and the promise of a reintegrating ideology to build a new community in the future, in which the integrating bonds would derive not from tradition and communal controls but from the state p108 [Feuer, Virginia] Educted as literary intellectuals, these men regarded entry into the competitive market as a traumatic and degrading experience. Usually the children of a protective family with an aesthetic or religious atmosphere, they grew up estranged from commerce and industry and hostile to its values p133 The "hard" scientist, the engineer, or the technologist sublimates his generational aggression by coping with the environment. The human intellectual, on the other hand, oscillates between fantasy and force p134 In his great book Capitalism,_Socialism, and_Democracy, Joseph Schumpeter argued that the overexpansion [inflation?] of universities multiplies the number of those "psychically unemployable in lower occupations" and nurtures "a discontented frame of mind" p168 [Vree,Berkeley] As for the market system, I suspect tha many of its detractors would concede that it bestows marvelous economic benefits upon people, but they would argue that these benefits are not worth all the psychological trauma that a competitive society induces #@# Mises Bureaucracy Yale 1944 Arlington 1969 87000-068-3 p5 America is faced with a phenomenon that the framers of the Constitution did not forsee and could not foresee: the voluntary abandonment of congressional rights.. delegation of power is the main instrument of modern dictatorship. It is by virtue of delegation of power that Hitler and his Cabinet rule Germany p26 He who wants to reform his countrymen must take recourse to persuasion. This alone is the democratic way of bringing about changes. If a man fails in his endeavors to convince other people of the soundness of his ideasm he should blame his own disabilities. He should not ask for a law, that is, for compulsion and coercion by the police p81 Representative democracy cannot subsist if a great part of the voters are on the government pay roll. If the members of parliament no longer consider themselves mandatories of the taxpayers, but deputies of those receiving salaries, wages, subsidies, doles, and other benefits from the treasury, democracy is done for p104 system that can be wrecked by the fault of only one man is a bad system.. Fuhrer system must necessarily result in permanent [Praetorian] civil war as soon as there are several candidates for the supreme office p105 The capitalist variety of competition is to outdo other people on the market through offering better and cheaper goods. The bureaucratuc variety consists in intrigues at the "courts" of those in power #@# Bastiat Law 1848 Dean Russell FEE 1950 p11 fatal tendency that exists in the heart of man to satisfy his wants with the least possible effort, explains the almost universal perversion of the law.. instead of checking injustice, becomes the invincible weapon of injustice.. by the legislator to destory in varying degrees among the rest of the people, their personal independence by slavery, their liberty by oppression, and their property by plunder.. for the benefit of the person who makes the law, and in proportion to the power that he holds p25 most popular fallacy of our times. It is not considered sufficient that the law should be just; it must be philanthropic. Nor is it sufficient that the law should guarantee to every citizen the free and inoffensive use of his faculties for physical, intellectual, and moral self-improvement. Instead, it is demanded that the law should directly extend welfare, eduction, and morality throughout the nation. This is the seductive lure of socialism. And I repeat again: These two uses of the law are in direct contradiction to each other. We must choose between them. A citizen cannot be at the same time free and not free p27 protectionism, socialism, and communism are basically the same plant in three different stages of its growth. All that can be said is that legal plunder is more visible in communism p29 purpose_of the_law is_to cause_justice to_reign, is not a rigorously accurate statement. It ought to be stated that the purpose_of the_law is_to prevent_injustice from_reigning #@# Moderation in defense of extremism. Rutenberg, Alan American Scholar; Spring97, Vol. 66 Issue 2, p290, 4p GREAT BOOKS: MY ADVENTURES WITH HOMER, ROUSSEAU, WOOLF, AND OTHER INDESTRUCTIBLE WRITERS OF THE WESTERN WORLD. David Denby. Simon & Schuster. "In my day, back in the early sixties, the [Columbia] College was heavily populated with city Jews and Italian-Americans, bookish, sallow young men (like me) preoccupied with Sartre and Kafka, Beethoven and the Modern Jazz Quartet.".. a lucid journalistic account with a considerable emphasis on personalities, a studied, ironic presentation of autobiography, and a sophisticated liberal politics that maintains a tacit distance from the academic left.. But Denby then acknowledges the force of the politically correct attack on literature: "However much I disliked Achebe and Said's approach--their fear of narrative pleasure, their demand for correct attitudes ... however wrong or extreme in individual cases, the academic left has alerted readers to the possible hidden assumptions in language and point of view.".. In his consideration of Nietzsche, Denby addresses the difficult and central problem of relativism directly. He understands that Nietzsche establishes the groundwork for the relativist stance of the academic left.. Denby manages to conclude his Nietzsche chapter as the moderate champion of "the case for the most complex pleasures"--a case which the academic left has ruled out "as some sort of reactionary formation.".. Denby does acknowledge that parts of the academic left are highly skeptical of free speech and other democratic institutions and liberties, and that Kolakowski deserves attention as a critic of such attitudes, but this note of moderation passes fairly quickly.. Anyone who has read Kolakowski's truly magisterial criticism of Marxist thought, Main Currents of Marxism, will certainly find this crude, to put it gently. Leszek Kolakowski, a man of notable personal presence, stands as the one scholar of the very highest rank whom David Denby actually encounters in his year of remedial education. It is both remarkable and revealing that in his rather cynical response to Kolakowski, Denby fails to recognize the gravity of an exceptionally superior mind, a living exemplar of the Western intellectual tradition. #@# Lord Acton and the Lost Cause. Clausen, Christopher American Scholar; Winter2000, Vol. 69 Issue 1, p49, 10p The major conflict of his career was with the Vatican over papal infallibility and religious freedom, for Acton was a dissident but devout Roman Catholic. Otherwise, his life--the life of a comfortable member of the gentry, briefly a Liberal member of Parliament, who was later raised to the lowest rung of the peerage--mostly lacked external drama.. Worse still for his reputation today, this political moralist, who described himself early in life as "a partisan of sinking ships," passionately supported the South during the American Civil War. Although he was a lifelong opponent of slavery, he published a succession of influential articles embracing the Southern struggle for independence, and his partiality did not alter when the North won.. For decades segregationists made twin fetishes of the Confederate battle flag and the venerable political doctrine of states' rights on which the Confederacy was based, ultimately discrediting both among people who believed in racial equality and the righting of ancient wrongs.. Nonetheless, in her excellent biography of Acton, Gertrude Himmelfarb complains that he evaded the moral issue of Southern slavery.. Acton certainly admired the blue-blooded Lee, whom he hailed as a fellow opponent of slavery. But he took pleasure in pointing out to Lee that much English support for the Southern cause "was neither unselfish nor sincere. It sprang partly from an exultant belief in the imminent decline and ruin of Democratic institutions, partly from the hope that America would be weakened by the separation, and from terror at the remote prospect of Farragut appearing in the channel and Sherman landing in Ireland." Acton himself, who sat in Parliament for an Irish borough, admired the American system of government.. Laws that lack antiquity tend to be more rational and practical than those that have ancient superstition on their side. Second and more striking, colonies encourage "the mixture of races," another factor that breaks down old orthodoxies and leads to new nations.. Imperialism, though an evil in itself, could sometimes lead through the crooked tunnels of history to beneficial results.. The American Revolution, naturally, had been led by revolutionaries. A decade later the Constitutional Convention was dominated by conservatives.. In another lecture he again pays tribute to "the federal system, which limits the central government by the powers reserved, and the state governments by the powers they have ceded. It is the one immortal tribute of America to political science, for state rights are at the same time the consummation and the guard of democracy.".. Who can stand up against the voice of the people? "The true democratic principle," Acton wrote, "that none shall have power over the people, is taken to mean that none shall be able to restrain or to elude its power.... The true democratic principle, that every man's free will shall be as unfettered as possible, is taken to mean that the free will of the collective people shall be fettered in nothing." Absolute power corrupts democracy just as surely as any other form of government.. Hence the overriding necessity in a democracy for institutional limitations on government authority.. the federal system of divided sovereignty offered effective checks against an ambitious, threatening national government that might arise once the representatives of the people discovered unlimited power in their hands.. Nationalism was bad for two related reasons: because it subordinated the state to the will of one race, excluding all others; and because the deification of the nation was one more pretext for suppressing human rights. The nation should be not an idol demanding sacrifices, but a collective name for the diversity of individuals whose freedom and wellbeing constitute its goals.. France was ruled by Napoleon III, whom some historians regard as the first modern dictator because he perverted the machinery of democracy so effectively. Italy was completing its messy process of national unification. The most powerful German state, Prussia, was a militaristic autocracy in the early stages, under Bismarck's leadership, of unifying Germany through a succession of wars. (Not surprisingly, Acton pointed out, Prussia supported the North in the Civil War.).. As a liberal Catholic in Victorian England, Acton knew all there was to know about holding minority opinions. As an Englishman who had been born in Naples to an aristocratic German mother and educated in Munich, he was politically and culturally far more cosmopolitan, more connected with the centers of Europe.. When the Western Allies reconstructed their shattered enemy after two world wars, they created the Federal Republic of Germany, citing many of the same reasons that Acton gave for preferring a decentralized system. #@# Iatrogenic government. Moynihan, Daniel Patrick American Scholar; Summer93, Vol. 62 Issue 3, p351, 12p My first foray into the field came in August 1969, after the president had sent to Congress a considerable legislative program that addressed urban matters. In this program, the welfare system was to be replaced by a guaranteed income, known as the Family Assistance Plan. The federal government would share its revenue with state and city governments. Now was the time for drugs. At that time most of the heroin used here was coming in from Marseilles, where it was refined from Turkish opium.. distilled alcohol when it first became available in the eighteenth century as a combined result of the renaissance invention of distillation and the later agricultural revolution that produced an abundance of grain.. W.J. Rorabaugh's The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition would not appear for another decade, but enough of the American experience was available to provide some useful generalizations. The first law enacted by the first Congress established the oath of office.. The second law imposed a ten-cents-per-gallon tariff on Jamaican rum--to encourage consumption of American whiskey.. Laborers digging the Erie Canal were allotted a quart of Monongahela whiskey a day.. Apart only from the movement to abolish slavery, the most popular and influential social movement of nineteenth-century America concerned the effort to limit or indeed prohibit the use of alcohol.. The use of what might be termed high-proof drugs appears roughly a century later than the use of high-proof alcoholic drink. Just as beer and wine are naturally fermented products of grain and grapes, narcotics and stimulants appear in nature as attributes of the poppy or coca plant. The crucial technological event here was the development of organic chemistry in German universities in the middle of the nineteenth century.. while there is an agonist treatment (methadone) and an antagonist treatment (naltrexone) for opiates, no approved medication for the treatment of addiction to cocaine (including the smokable form of cocaine known as crack) currently exists. And crack cocaine is where the problem is centered.. Funding for treatment of substance abuse has been a bipartisan failure.. We oppose legalizing or decriminalizing drugs. That is a morally abhorrent idea, the last vestige of an ill-conceived philosophy that counseled the legitimacy of permissiveness.. It is essential that we understand that by choosing prohibition we are choosing to have an intense crime problem concentrated among minorities. It is no different from Prohibition in the 1920s. #@# Sowell Knowledge & Decisions 1980 Basic 0-465-03737-2 p5 Systematic authentication involves a testing of the logical structure of a theory for internal consistency and a testing of the theory's results for external consistency with the observable facts of the real world. Consesnual approval may mean the approval of the general public as of a given time, or the approval of some special reference group p6 A problem does arise, however, when one method masquerades as another - for example, when the results of essentially consensual processes to present themselves as scientific, as in the case of much so-called "social science" p7 Civilization is an enormous device for economizing on knowledge. THe time and effort (including costly mistakes) necessary to acquire knowledge are minimized through specialization, which is to say through drastic limitations on the amount of duplication of knowledge p13 General knowledge - expertise, statistics, etc. - is usually more economically used by the higher decision-making units.. But for highly specific knowledge - the local life style, the reliability of particular suppliers, the level of skill of a given executive, etc. - the subordinate units immediately in daily contact with the relevant facts can much more easily and more cheaply synthesize the knowledge and draw inferences p15 Much criticism of "incompetent bureaucrats" implicitly assumes that those in the bureaucracy are pursuing the assigned goal but failing to achieve it due to lack of ability. In fact, they may be responing very rationalyy and ably to the set of incentives facing them p16 Time is continuous, and breaking it up into discrete units for purposes of assessment and reward opens the possibility that behavior will be tailored to the time period in question, without regard to its longer range implications p19 With sequential decision making, all the knowledge which is finally available to the decision maker is not initially available when the sequence of decisions begins, and the course of action followed may be wholly different from what it would have been if all the knowledge had been available at the outset, or if any decision could have been postponed until after all the facts were in p25 It says that informal relationships may involved lower current costs because of past incestments in mutual familiarization.. The acquisition of the same information through informal relationships is of course not illegal, and is therefore less costly for this reason as well as because of the lower psychic costs of interaction among self-selected people p27 A "foolish consistency" is less often necessary in informal relationships p28 Informal decision making thus allows a fungibility of highly disparate factors in terms of their net effects, viewed retrospectively. The proverbial "advantage of hindsight" can be utilized by informal processes. But formal organizational decision making tends toward a prospective categorical specification of factors to be taken into account in specific, programmed ways. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of informal relationships tend to be greatest in decisions which turn on individual personal or circumstantial differences of a sort which cannot be explicitly or exhaustively specified in advance, which may result from too wide and varied an assortment of influences to list in advance, or even to convey in any logically compelling way after the fact, and which require a large amount of highly individual information at low cost p35 The external costs in some economic processes, and the high trasnactions costs of organizing thousands of scattered individuals, create special problems for third parties. Viewed as a social process, th eproblem with such economic processes is that the transacting parties are not coextensive with affected parties p40 Even as compared to formal economic or political processes, juducual decision making tends to be dichotomized into guilty or innocent, and appellate decisions into constitutional or unconstitutional, the legal precedents apply to all similarly circumstanced individuals - where the similarity is in those articukated characteristics documentable to third parties, whether or not these are the characteristics most behavirally determinatice or philosophically crucial p43 Man's equally pervasive spiritual needs - whether met in religious or ideological ways - have often led to such mutual destruction, ranging from persecution to wholesale slaughter, when particular religious or political creeds required consensus as part of their tenets. Individualism and pluralism in social, political and economic processes reduce the need for consensus - at the cost of presenting an untidy spectacle of "chaos" to those eager for consensus in support of their particularl subjective values p45 An economic system is a system for the production and distribution of goods and services. But what is crucial for understanding the way it functions is that it is a system for rationing goods and services that are inadequate to supply all that people want.. Capitalist systems use capitalist methods of denial, socialist systems use socialist methods of denial, but all economic systems must use som emethod of denial p49 substitution.. same ingreddiant can go into many different products. It should also be recognized that many different products can be ingrediates in a consumer's sense of well-being p51 The cost of any good is the cost of its ingredients, and their cost, in turn, is whatever alternative good had to be foregone in order to use them where they are used.. Value being ultimately subjective, it varies not only from person but from time to time with the same person, and varies also according to how much of the given good he alread has p52 Although neither value nor efficiency is wholly objective, the idea that there are dies hard. Denunciation of "inneficiency" and "waste" are often nothing more that statements of a different set of preferences. Schemes to turn particular decisions or processes over to "experts" who will promote acientifically neutral "efficiency" are often simply ways of allowing one group to impose their subective preferences on others p53 When people caually speak of "the" cost of producing something, they usually mean the average cost - that is, the total cost of running the enterprise divided by the number of units of output it produces. But for actual decision-making purposes at any given time, the incremental cost is more crucial p54 there is no fixed relationship between input and output but some general patterns that need to be kept in mind in discussion of economic systems - or even legal, political, and social systems. Generally, the pattern has been that increasing one input while othr inputs remain constant, usually increases output - at first faster than the one input is increased, then in proportion, then slower, and finally there is an absolute reduction of output when the one input is added in unlimited quantities p55 more options generally means beter results p57 future benfirs must be greater than present benefits to make it worthwhile to wait p61 for an optimal distribution of risks, knowledge must somehow be communicated through the system as to who is more willing and who is more reluctant to bear the various levels of risk which are inherent in undertaking different economic (or other) activites p64 By this economists' standard, many successful small businesses are making no profit at all.. residual claim after such deduction would be negative, so that the owner operator is in effect paying for the privilege of being his own boss.. residual claimants are the stockholders.. paying some people at fixed rates (employees, executives, bondholders) and others in residual claims (stockholders and sometimes tax collectors) p67 Both the "just price" doctrine and the usury prohibition refused to recognize differences in value due solely to location in time or space p68 In reality, they deal through the middleman because he is changing the value of things by relocating them, holding them to times that are more convenient, assuming various risks by stocking inventories - and doing so at less cost than either the producer or the customer could p72 Although we cannot reduce all the different sets of individual prefernces to one set, we can conceive of an optimal performance by an economy as representing the satisfaction of the diverse set of preferences to such an extent that no one could be made an better off (by his own standards) without making someone else worse off (by his own standards). Economists call this "Pareto optimality" p79 Perhaps the most widespread misunderstanding of economics is that it applies solely to financial transactions. Frequently this leads to statements that "there are noneconomic values" to consider. There are, of course, noneconomic values. Indeed, there are only noneconomic values. Economics is not a value itself, but merely a method of trading off one value against another p87 Most objections to sorting and labelin gof people - ae besed on ignoring the costs of knowledge, or ignoring differences in the cost of knowledge p95 Differences in time horizons among social groups change the effectiveness of social policies involving either benefits or penalites, especially when one social group, with a given time horizon, predominates among policy makers and another social group, with a different time horizon, predominates among those to whom the policy applies p102 Given the imperfection of language and the limitations of specific evidence, it is by no means a foregone conclusion that the mere formally logical articulation is in fact more rationl, much less emprically correct p121 The implicit assumption of the theory is that there will be not merely more numerous decision makers but more representative ones. But, turning from hopes to institutional mechanics, there is usually nothing to lead institionally toward that result, and much to lead in the opposite direction. Those individuals who have the leisure, the education, and the inclination to "participate" may be very unrepresentative of the public p129 incorporating it into specific law eliminates the transaction costs of pointlessly litigating anew each time the net harm of the individual act, in a common-law apprach without any explicit law p137 Numerous and relatively inflexible rules reduce the cost of monitoring, by reducing the basic question to whether or not established procedured were followed.. all accept some trade-off of discretionary flexibility for institutional dependability and insurance against discriminatory use of vast powers of gvernment. "Red tape" is an implicit premium paid of this "insurance" p164 Even within democratic nations, the locus of decision making has drifted away from the individual, the family, and voluntary associations of various sorts, and toward government. And within government, it has moved away from elected officials subject to voter feedback, and toward more insulated governemntal institutions, such as bureaucracies and the appointed juduciary.. vast numbers of people have ceased being residual claimant decision makers and become fixed claimant employees p169 The costs of an industry are difficult - if not impossible - for third parties to determine.. costs are foregon options - and options are always prospective. The past us irrevocably fixed, so all options are present or future p232 importance of these regulatory commissions is out of proportion to their public visibility or politicl accountability. They create more law than Congress p237 "environemtal impact" requirements impose high costs on one party at low cost to the other party, regardles of the legal outcome of the case.. Where the costs of transmitting one set of knowledge (the demand for electricity, in this case) is artififcially made greater than the costs of conveying the other set of knowledge (recreational demands), then the distortion of knowledge can lead to results which neither the economic not the legal decision makers would have reached had accurate knowledge been equally transmittable from opposing sides at equal costs p340 The dmeand for intellectuals' services is also increased by developing preferences for such political and social processes as commonly use more of intellectuals' inputs - eg political control and status ascription from the top down, "education" or "more research" as the answers to the world's ills, and "participation" and institutional articulation as the way to better decisions. The occupational self-interest of intellectuals is served not only by product differentiation, but by "relevance." Many cognitively intellectual productions are of no immediate applicability, because (1) they have not yet been subjected to empirical validation or cannot be in the real world, or (2) their very nature and thurst are different from political discussions on the same subject matter, or (3) the time horizon of the scholarly endeavor may far exceed that of politics, so that no cognitively authenticated conclusion may be available within the time in which a political decision has to be made, and (4) such articulated knowledge as may be available may go counter to what is politically desired. Making intellectual output "relevant" involves resolving such dilemmas p350 Such patterns - intellectuals promoting government power and intolerant divisiveness - were not peculiar to the ROamn Empire, nor even to Western civilization. In the later dynasties of the Chinese empire, intelectuals also rose to dominance, producing a similar pattern in a very differet setting. Beginnin with the Sung dynasty (960-1127 AD), "scholar-officials," chosen by examinations, dominated the Chinese government and society. Rulers became more autocratice, and governemnt powers more centralized and pervasive in their scope, including "smothering government control of large scale businees" and a "secret police almost unfettered by legal restraints." Later the "recurrent factional controversies" among the ntellectuals running the government became "a major factor in the decline of the Ming dynasty." As in ancient Rome, this was the prelude to the Chinese empire's being militarily overwhelmed by foreign peoples once disdained as barbarians p367 Adam Smith came two thousand years after Plato, but sontemporary versions of the philosopher-king approach are considered new and revolutionary, while contemporary versions of systemic decentralization are considered "outmoded".. The characteristics of the individual vision are strikingly similar to the characteristics of totalitarian ideology - especially the localization of evil and of wisdom, and psychic identifiation with the interests of great masses, whose actual preferences are ignored in favor of the overriding preerences of intellectuals. It is consistent with this that intellectuals have supported and indeed spearheaded the movement toward a centralization of power in democratic nations and have apologized for foreign despotisms and totalitarianisms which featured like-minded people #@# Bickel, Morality_of_Consent,Yale,1975 p24 valueless institutions are shameful and shameless and, what is more, man's nature is such that he finds them, and life with and under them, insupportable p27 The state regulates and licenses restaurants and pool halls.. why may it not similarly regulate and license abortion clinics p38 Taney [in Dred Scott], by an ipse_dixit, argued that when the Constitution says "people" it means the same thing as citizens. Yet the Constitution says citizens rarely, and people most of the time, and never the two interchangeably. p53 A relationship between government and the governed that turns on citizenship can always be dissolved or denied. p65 Political speech, said the Court, is often "vituperative, abusive, inexact" [394 US at 708] p77 We had better recognize how much is human activity a random confusion, and there is no final validity to be claimed for our truths. p86 So we are content, in the contest between press and government, with the pulling and hauling, because in it lies the optimal assurance of both privacy and freedom of information. Not full assurance of either, but maximum assurance of both. Madison knew the secret of this disorderly system, indeed he invented it. p88 We thus contrive to avoid most judgements that we do not know how to make. p92 we can find a connection between some at least of Mr. Nixon's men and part at least of the radical Left. Ideological imperatives and personal loyalty prevailed over the norms and commands of the legal order. They kept faith with their friends, and had the guts to betray their country p121 need to structure institutions so that they might rest on different electoral foundations and in the aggregate be better able to generate consent p122 [Watergate] leaf from the Warren Court's book, but the presidency could undertake to act anti-institutionally in this fashion with more justification because, unlike the Court, it could claim not only a constituency but the largest one p141 When bushels of desires and objectives are conceived as moral imperatives, it is natural to seek their achievement by any means p142 But if we do resist the seductive temptations of moral imperatives and fix our eye on that middle distance where values are provisionally held, are tested and evolve within the legal order - derived from the morality of process, which is the morality of consent - our moral authority will carry more weight. The computing principle Burke urged upon us can lead us then to an imperfect justice, for there is no other kind #@# Chas Beard PSQ 27#1 3/12 Supreme Court - Usurper or Grantee? p2 The arguments advanced to show that the framers of the Constituion did not intend to grant to the federal judiciary any control over federal legislation may be summarized as follows. Not only is the power in question not expressly granted, but it could not have seemed to the framers to have been granted by implication. THe power to refuse application to an unconstitutional law was not generally regarded a sproper to the judiciary. In a few cases only has state courts attempted to execrice such a power, and these few attempts had been sharply rebuked by the people. Of the memebers of the COnvention of 1787 not more than five or six are known to have regarded this power as a part of the general judiciary power; and Spaight and three or four others are known to have held the contrary opinion. It cannot be assumed that the othe rforty-odd members of the Convention were divided on the question in the same proportion. If any conclusion is to be drawn from their silence it is rather that they did not believe that any such unprecedented judicial power could be read into the Constitution. This conclusion is fortified by the fact that a proposition to confer upon the federal judges revisory power over federal legislation was four times made in the Convention and defeated p23 After lengthy debates on the draft submitted by the Committee of Detail, a committee of five was created to revise and arrange the style of the articles agreed to by the Convention; and Johnson, Hamilton, Morris, Madison and King were selected as members of this committee. Of these five men four, Hamilton, Morris, Madison and King are on record as expressly favoring juducual control over legislation. There is some little dispute as to the share of glory to be assigned to single members of the committee, but undoubtedly Gouvernour Morris played a considerable part in giving to the Constitution its final form p28 The men who framed the federal Constitution were not among the paper-money advocates and stay-law makers whose operations in state legislatures and attacks aupon the courts were chiefly responsible, Madison informs us, for the calling of the Convention. The framers of the Constitution were not among those who favored the assaults on vested rights which legislative majorities were making throughout the Union. On the contrary, they were, almost without exception, bitter opponents of such enterprises; and they regarded it as their chief duty, in drafting the new Constitution, to find a way of preventing the renewal of whatthey deemed "legislative tyranny" p30 No historical fact is more clarly established than the fact that the framers of the Constitution distrusted democracy and feared the rule of mere numbers. Almost every page of Madison's record bears witness to the fact that the Convention was anxiously seeking to solve the problem of estabalishing property rights on so firm a basis that they would be forever secure against the assaults of legislative majorities. If any reader needs a documented demonstration of this fact, he will do well to turn to the Records of the Convention, so admirably compiled by PRofessor Farrand. Let him go through the proceedings of the Convention and see how many of the members expressed concern at the dangersof democracy and were casting about for som ememthd of restraining hte popular ranch of the govenment. THe very system of checks and balances, which is built upon the doctrine that the popular branch of government cannot be allowed full sway, and least of all in the enactment of laws touching the rights of property. THe exclusion of the direct popular vote in the election of the president; the creation, again by indirect election, of a Senate which framers hoped would represent the wealth and conservative interests of the country; and the establishment of an independent judiciary appointed by the president with the concurrence of the Senate - all these devices bear witness to the fact that the underlying purpose of the COnstitution was not the establishment of popular government by means of parliamentary election p34 In view of the principles entertained by the leading members of the Convention with whome Marshal was acquainted, in view of the doctrine so clearly laid down in number 78 of The Federalist, in view of the arguments made more than once by eminent counsel before the Supreme Court, in view of Hayburn's case and Hylton v The United States, in view of the judicial opinions several times expressed, in view of the purpose and spirit of the federal Constitution, it is difficult to understand the temerity of those who speak of the power asserted by Marshal in Marbury v Madison as "usurpation" #@# Zelermyer Legal Reasoning Prentice Hall NJ 1960 p5 Legal reasoning involves the fitting of a particular situation into the fabric of legal history. p167 seek to decide cases in accordance with common understanding; where common understanding is not clear, they seek to clarify it; where a legislature has spoken, they try to give its mandate effect; where precedents are available, they are evaluated in terms of their reflection of attitudes prevalent at the time of their inception, in terms of changing conditions and attitudes, and in terms of present circumstances; where precedents ar enot available, the judges reason by analogy and by comparison, keeping in mind applicable basic principles, the peculiar facts and circumstances of the case, and the possible effects of their decisions upon the future p168 Beware of generalizations. THey may not be well founded.. We cannot tell with certainty what the same or othe rmen would decide, at the same or another time, in the same or another place, on the basis of the same or other reasoning applied to the same or other questions arising out of other happenings under the same or other circumstances #@# Blackstone,Commentaries Laws&Constitution,Clarke(1796,London;2005,Elibron 2005) p5 used so long, that the memory of man runneth not to the contrary (a) So that, if one can shew the beginning of it, it is no good custom.. It must have been continued.. It must have been peacaeble, and acquiesced inl not subject to contention or dispute.. Customs must be reasonable p7 By the civil law, absolutely taken, is generally understood the civil or municipal law of the Roman empire, as comprized in the institutes, the Code, and the Digest of the Emperor Justinian, and the novel constitutions of himself and some of his successors p14 For a woman is quick with child, and by a potion or otherwise, killeth it in her womb; or if any one beat her, whereby the child dieth in her body, and she is delivered of a dead child, this, though not murder, was by ancient law homicide or manslaughter.. As infant in venre sa mere, or in the mother's womb, is supposed in law to be born for many purposes p17 So great is the regard of the law for private property, that it will not authorize the least violation of it; no, not even for the general good of the whole community p50 The children of aliens, born here in England, are, generally speaking, natural-born subjects, and entitled to all the privileges of such.. A denizen is in a kind of a middle state, between an alien and natural-born subject, and partakes of both of them.. Naturalization cannot be performed but by an act of parliament p94 Corporations aggregate consist of many persons united together into one society, and are kept up by a perspetual succession of members, so as to continue forever: of which kind are the mayor and commonality of a city, the head and fellows of a c ollege, the dean and chapter of a cathedral church. Corporations sole consist of one person only and his successors, in some particular station, who are incorporated by law, in order to give them some legal capacities and advantages, particularly that of perpetuity, which in their natural persons they could not have had p103 liberum tenementum, franktenement, or freehold, is applicable not only to lands and other solid objects, but also to offices, rents, commons, and the like p104 if a body of water runs out of my pond into another man's, I have no right to reclaim it. But the land, which that water covers, is permanent, fixed, and immoveable: and therefore in this I may have a certain, substantial property p117 An annuity is a thing very distinct from rent-charge, with which it is frequently confounded: a rent-charge being a burthen imposed upon and issuing out of lands, whereas an annuity is a yearly sum chargeable only upon the person of the grantor.. The wrod rent or render, reditus, signifies a compensation or return, it being in the nature of an acknowledgment given for the possession of some corporeal inheritance. It is defined to be a certain profit issueing yearly out of lands and tenements corporeal. It must be a profit; yet there is no occasion for it to be, as it usually is, a sum of money p130 As the word heirs is necessary to create a fee, so in farther imitation of the strictness of the feodal donation, the word body, or some other words of procreation, are necessary to make it a fee-tail. and ascertain to what heirs in particular the fee is limited. If therefore either the words of inheritance or words of procreation be omitted, albeit the others inserted in the grant, this will not make an estate tail. As, if the grantbe to a man and the issue of his body, to a man and his seed, to a man and his children, or offspring; all these are estates for life, there wanting the words of inheritance, his heirs. So, on the other hand, a gift to a man, and his heirs male, or female, is an estate in fee-simple, and not in fee-tail; for there are no words to ascertain the body out of which they shall issue p148 A copyholder may, in many manors, be tenant in fee-simple, in fee-tail, for life, by the curtesy, in dower, for years, at sufferance, or on condition: subject however to be deprived of these estates upon the concurrence of those circumstances which the will of the lod, promulged by immemorial custom, has declared to be a forfeiture or absolute determination of those interests; as in some manors the want of issue male, in others the cutting down timber, the non-payment of a fine, and the like.. tenants themselves; who are sometimes called customary freeholders, being allowed to have a freehold interest, though not a freehold tenure. III. An estate at sufferance, is where one comes in posession of land by lawful title, but keeps it afterwards without any title at all p150 Estates then upon condition thus understood, are of two sorts: 1. Estates upon condition implied; 2. Estates upon condition expressed; under which last may be included, 3. Estates held in vadio, gage, or pledge. 4. Estates by statute merchant or statute staple; 5. Estates held by elegit p152 Estates held in vadio, in gage, or pledge; which are two kinds, vivum vadium, or living pledge; and mortum vadium, dead pledge, or mortgage p155 A foruth sepciaes of estates, defeasible on condition subsequent, are those held by statute merchant, and statute staple; which are very nearly related to the vivum vadium before-mentioned, or estate held till the profits thereof shall discharge a debt liquidated or ascertained p158 Vested remainders (or remainders executed, whereby a present interest passes to the party, though to be enjoye din futuro) are where the estate is invariably fixed, to remain to a determinate person, after the particular estate is spent p165 The properties of a joint estate are derived from it's [sic] unity, which is fourfold; the unity of interest, the unity of title, the unity of time, and the unity of possession p170 Tenants in common are such as hold by several and distinct titles, but by unity of possession. Tenancy in common may be created, either by the destruction of the other two estates in joint-tenancy and coparcenary, or by special limitation in th edeed p184 The law od escheats is founded upon this single principle, that the blood of the person last feifed in fee-simple is by some means or other, utterly extinct and gone: and, since none can inherit his estate but such as are of his blood and cosanguinity, it follows as a regular consequence, that when such blood is extinct, the inheritance itself must fail; the land must become what the feodal writers denominate feudum apertum; and must result back again to the lord of the fee, by whome, or by those whose estate he hath, it was given p206 A deed also, or other grant, made without any consideration, is, as it were, of no effect; for it is construed to enure, or to be effectual, only to the use of a grantor himself (a). THe consideration may be either a good, or a valuable one.. Deeds made upon good consideration only, are considered as merely voluntary, and are frequently set aside in favour of creditors, and bona fide purchasors.. deed must be written.. Formerly many conveyances were made by parol, or word of mouth only, without writing; but this giving a handle to a variety of frauds [Statute of Frauds 29 Car II c3] p211 Original conveyances are the following: 1. Feoffment; 2. Gift; 3. Grant; 4. Lease; 5. Exchange; 6. Partition; Derivative are, 7. Release; 8. COnfirmation; 9. Surrender; 10. Assignment; 11. Defeazance p309 abatement, or removal of nuisances.. removed, by the party aggrieved thereby, so as he commits no riot in the doing of it. If a house or wall is erected so near to mine that it stops my ancient lights, which is a private nuisance, I may enter my neighbor's land, and peaceably pull it down.. law allows a man to be his own avenger, or to minister redress to himself, is that of distreining cattle or goods for non-payment of rent, or other duties; or distreinign another's cattle damage-feasant, that is, doing damage, or trespassing upon his land p318 submit all matters in dispute, concerning any personal chattels or personal wrong, to the judgement of two or more arbitrators; who are to decide the controversy: and if they do not agree, it is usual to add, that another person is called in as umpire, (imperator or impar) to whose sole judgment it is then referred p357 affect a man's lands, tenements, or hereditaments, is that of trespass. Trespass, in it's largest, and most extensive sense, signifies any transgression or offence against the law of nature, of society, or of the country in which we live; whether it relates to a man's person, or his property.. Every unwarrantable entry on another's soil the law entitles a trespass by breaking his close p360 Also, it has been said, that by the common law and custom of England, th epoor are allowed to enter and glean upon another's ground after the harvest, without being guilty of trespass (a): which humane provision seems borrowed from the mosaical law p364 So that nuisances which affect a man's dwelling may be reduced to these three: 1. Overhanging it; which is also a species of trespass, for cujus est solum ejus est usque ad coelum; 2. Stopping ancient lights; and, 3. Corrupting the air with noisome smells: for light and air are two indispensable requisites to every dwelling p410-411 land is awarded to him, the writ of execution shall be an habere facias seisinnam, or writ of seisin, of a frrehold; or an habere facias possessionem, or writ of possession, of a chattel interest p426 All the several pleas and excuses, which protect the committer of a forbidden act from the punishement which is otherwise annexed thereto, may be reduced to this single consideration, the want or defect of will p458 The crimes and misdemesnors that more especially affect the commonwealth may be divided into five speciaes; viz. offences against public justice, against the pulic peace, against public trade, against public health, and against the public police or eoconomy [rule not economics] p504 Mayhem.. atrocious breach of the king's peace, and an offence tending to deprive him of the aid and assistance of his subkects p508 Burglary, or nocturnal housebreaking. The definition of a burglar, as first given by sir Edward Coke, is "he that by night breaketh and entereth into a mansion-house, with intent to commit a felony." In this definition there are four things to be considered: the time, th eplace, the manner, and the intent.. in day time there is no burglary p512 Larciny, or theft, by contraction for latrociny, latrocinium p522 Open and violent larciny from the person, or robbery, the rapina of the civilians, is felonious and forcible taking from the person of another, or good or money to any value, by violence or putting him in fear #@# CENTENNIAL TRIBUTE ESSAY: A Theory of the Laws of War Winter, 2003 70 U. Chi. L. Rev. 297 Eric A. Posner States frequently violate the laws of war, and when they do not, it is often because the laws have minimal, and controversial, content.. lower the level of military technology, the less wealth that nations will invest in conflict, and the more they will invest in production and consumption.. Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907 were the first significant, multilateral efforts to establish laws of war by treaty.. discrimination principle holds that civilians should not be targeted, and the proportionality principle holds that collateral damage to them and their property should be limited.. rule against perfidy, which forbids soldiers to wear the uniforms of enemies, to call a truce in order to lure the enemy into the open where they will be attacked, to disguise a warship as a hospital ship.. The jointly optimal outcome occurs if both states invest all their resources in production and none in predation.. In equilibrium each state will invest equal, positive amounts in both military and productive capital.. with greater efficiency, the predatory returns generated by an additional dollar invested in military capital will be greater than the share of productive returns generated by an additional dollar invested in productive capacity. But because both states invest more in predation, they become jointly worse off.. Rules prohibiting poison gas, the execution of prisoners, the laying of untethered mines at sea, and many other activities exhibit a similar logic.. belligerents also fear that if they treat neutrals too roughly these states will enter the war on the other side, they will balance this cost against the benefit.. Hirshleifer calls this phenomenon the "paradox of power": a weaker state can gain at a stronger state's expense.. lack of productive opportunities made its opportunity cost of military investment very low.. small state with powerful weapons can extract tribute, concessions, and other benefits from a much wealthier state, and wealthier states would like to respond, even in concert, by creating international law that restricts the weapons and tactics favoring the small states.. small states will not necessarily consent to the laws of war.. It is possible that limits on the destructiveness of weapons make states worse off.. less likely to go to war against states that have destructive weapons.. fear of nuclear destruction prevented military conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. The deterrence value of these weapons was one reason why the International Court of Justice did not declare them illegal.. States can enjoy increased levels of production and consumption only if the bargain sticks.. self-interested behavior. Prisoners are not usually executed, but only because they have value as hostages and are often ransomed. Armies often spare noncombatants because they pose no immediate threat, they can provide supplies, information, and other services, and armies do not wish to give other civilians a reason for resistance. And any army that pursues a defeated opponent risks outrunning its supply lines and falling into disorder. Patterns of behavior that seem humane are not necessarily signs of humanity.. Information asymmetries and coordination problems will interfere with joint efforts to punish states that violate the laws of war. It is always hard to verify that a violation has occurred, and states will often be reluctant to expend resources punishing a violator.. laws of war should be either weaker and more limited, or broken more frequently, as the number of states increases.. against use of poison gas might have succeeded because poison gas was an ineffective weapon.. militarily weaker states will more strongly support the laws of war when they involve expensive new technologies.. states that have recently been in wars will more strongly support laws of war, because they will have better information about the effectiveness of weapons.. economically powerful states will more strongly support the laws of war because they gain more from production than from military predation.. democracies seem more likely to support laws of war than non-democracies, either because of the public relations value of international law (an old realist chestnut) or because democracies place greater value on the rule of law than nondemocracies do #@# The Origins of Judicial Review Summer, 2003 70 U. Chi. L. Rev. 887 Saikrishna B. Prakash and John C. Yoo Judge Bork, however, has since modified his views on whether such an amendment would prove effective at controlling "judicial adventurism." See Robert H. Bork, Coercing Virtue: The Worldwide Rule of Judges 92 (AEI forthcoming 2003). From the left, Professor Mark Tushnet criticizes the Court's views on affirmative action and federalism, and has proposed the elimination of judicial review.. One burst of scholarly attention, apparently sparked by Brown v Board of Education, witnessed classic works such as Learned Hand's Bill of Rights, Alexander M. Bickel's The Least Dangerous Branch [Bobbs-Merrill 1962], Herbert Wechsler's Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law, and Charles Black, Jr.'s The People and the Court. A second burst consisted of Jesse Choper's Judicial Review and the National Political Process and John Hart Ely's Democracy and Distrust, both efforts to solve the countermajoritarian difficulty by developing theories that harmonized judicial review with democracy.. Bickel and Van Alstyne suggested that Marbury v Madison was something of a coup d'etat that allowed the judiciary to seize a policymaking and political role for itself.. Section 1 of Article III states that the "judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." Section 2 declares, inter alia, that the "judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority.".. In concluding that the Constitution authorized judicial review of federal statutes, Marbury also relied upon the Supremacy Clause for the proposition that the Constitution must trump unconstitutional federal statutes.. As Alexander Hamilton expressed it in Federalist 78, "every act of a delegated authority, contrary to the tenor of the commission under which it is exercised, is void.".. "the Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution.".. the Constitution's written, limited nature and its separation of powers -- explain why Marbury v Madison confidently ended by noting that the "particular phraseology of the constitution of the United States confirms and strengthens the principle" that the judges must ignore unconstitutional statutes.. Beginning in the early 1780s state courts began to treat the state constitutions as law to be applied over contrary state law. Notwithstanding the absence of any specific textual authorization in the state constitutions.. Records from the Philadelphia Convention reveal that no fewer than a dozen delegates in almost two dozen instances discussed judicial review of federal legislation. Indeed, the understanding that judicial review would exist under the proposed Constitution proved critical to several decisions[Farrand 20-23,28,73,97,98,109].. During the Philadelphia Convention, several leading Framers, including James Madison, Gouverneur Morris, and James Wilson, spoke in favor of judicial review or assumed that it would exist. In fact, the assumption of its existence led the Framers to discard other proposed checks on legislative power. Furthermore, during the ratification debates, famous proponents and opponents of the Constitution alike understood that federal and state courts could review the constitutionality of federal statutes. #@# Dollar&PlcyMix, Mundell, Princtn Ess Inl Fnc 85, 5/1971 LC750-165467 p5 Even if the dollar had no special status as an international currency, the tremendous size of the American economy would give it special significance. p8 countries can be illiquid even during a raging world inflation. The greater the rise of world prices - especially of internationally traded goods - the greater the erosion of liquidity p9 The belief that easy money promotes expansion rather than inflation is a gross exaggeration. p13 In each of these cases unemployment was the eventual result of the inflation policy. As inflation becomes rampant, velocity increases and both capital and labor are deptived of part of a complementary factor of production - money itself - and suffer productivity losses. p15 The United States and most other countries do not have inflation-immune tax structures.. longer inflation goes on without an adjustment of taxes the more it reduces actual output.. p17 Financial instruments should be allocated to financial targets; real instruments to real targets p25 Monetary acceleration is inflationary, but tax reduction is expansionary when there is unemployment.. Tax reduction and monetary expansion have substantially different effects both on effective demand and aggregate supply. p26 Tax reduction however is expansionary, not inflationary, when there is substantial underutilized capacity.. distinction revolves around the effect on supply.. how aggregate supply responds to aggregate demand, and on the impact of tax reduction on costs. Prices will rise only if the increase in aggregate demand exceeds the increase in aggregate supply _and_ if any excess of the demand price over the supply price of aggregate output is not offset by a reduction in wage (_cum_ tax) and other costs p27 [ d (growth) / d (interest) = (fraction of income saved) * (compensated saving elasticity, say .2) / (interest) / (capital output ratio, assumed constant at 2.5) .. two terms on top, two on bottom] #@# Ottoman Centuries, Kinross, 1977, isbn 0-688-08093-6 p16 by the end of the ninth century most of the military commands and many political offices of the Arab Empire were held by Moslem Turks p30 Bursa was invaded from the landward side, and eventually fell in 1326, just as Osman [the first Ottoman] lay dying.. buried, in a tomb looking down over the sea toward Constantinople p33 Moslems alone were obliged to perform military service, and were thus alone leigible for the tenure of land.. all land was the property of the state.. no landed nobility p42 Cantacuzene found himself wholly discredited.. retorted the tsar of Bulgaria, was the merited fruit of his unholy alliance with the Turks p48 Women, on the other hand, whether war widows or the young daughters of Greeks, Serbs, and Bulgarians, were generally enslaved as wives or concubines for the conquerors, who had brought virtually no women of their own p99 handiwork of a Hungarian engineer named Urban.. boasting of his capacity to make a canon that could raze the walls not only of Byzantium but of Babylon.. levelling of the road and the strengthening of its bridges, so that in spring the canon could be transported to a point outside the walls of Constantinople p103 [Mehmed] transporting his ships overland.. illusion of a seaborne fleet moving down the hill p108 Kerkoporta, in the northern corner of the walls, was inadvertanly left open p109 Emperor saw that the battle was lost. Exclaiming, "The city is taken and I am still alive," he dismounted from his horse, tore off his insignia, plunged headlong into the melee of the oncoming Janissaries, and was never seen again, alive or dead p114 1454, Gennadius was enthroned as Greek Patriarch.. rank of a pasha of three tails, with his own civil court and his own prison p115 Megadux, Lucas Notaras - the minister reputed to have said, when frustrated over the negotiations for the union of the churches, that he would sooner see the Sultan's turban in Constantinople than a cardinal's hat.. To test him, one evening at a banquet Mehmed, who was well flushed with wine, as was often his habit, and who was known to have ambivalent sexual tastes, sent a eunuch to the house of Notaras, demanding that he supply his good-looking fourteen-year-old son for the Sultan's pleasure. When he refsed, the SUltan instantly ordered the decapitation of Notaras p130 Dracul's bodyguard put the Turks to flight.. twenty thousand Bulgarians and Ottomans impaled on stakes and crucified [cf Pompei/Spartacus] p132 Ottoman rule over Bosnia was thenceforth accepted at least by the Bogomils, who became converted in large numbers to Islam p136 Thrusts were made in the direction of Brindisi, Lecce and Taranto [cf Ike], but repulsed by a vigorous force from Naples. The Sultan hoped to treate Otranto as an Ottoman bridgehead.. leaving only a small garrison supplied by the sea from the Adraitic coast - probably with Venetian aid p147 Thus a foreign visitor to Istanbul, Baron Wenceslas Wradislaw, later expressed it: "Never... did I hear it said of any pasha, or observe either in Constantinople or in the whole land of Turkey, that any pasha was a national born Turk; on the contrary, kidnapped, or captured, or turned Turk" p153 main strength still lay with the Janissaries, the infantry slave force, landless and Christian-born, whose numbers in the time of Mehmed rose to ten thousand men, with increased pay and imroved modern firearms p174 direct enemy was Francis I of France, his defeated rival in the election of the mantle of Holy Roman Emperor, with whom he was at war soon after Suleiman's accession. It was Charles's ambition to unite Western Christendom in a Holy Roman Empire under Habsburg dominion. But France was an obstacle to such dreams of European conquest, dividing his German from his Spanish dominions, obstructing his designs in northern Italy.. Suleiman subsidized him on several occasions, sending him in 1533 a sum of one hundred thousand gold pieces to help him form a coalition against Charles V, with England and the German Princes. Two years later, Francis requested a subsidy of a million ducats. To the Venetian ambassador he admitted that he saw in the Ottoman Empire the only force guaranteeing the combined existence of the states of Europe against the Habsburg emperor p185 The emperor, when it came to providing troops for a war against the Turks, was largeley at the mercy of a succession of Protestant Diets. They were to prove slow in granting them, even reluctant, since there were pacifist elements among them which saw the Pope, not the Sultan, as the principal enemy. At the same time they were quick to exploit, to their own ends, the secular conflict between Habsburg and Ottoman p187 To this day, when disaster overtakes him a Hungarian will say: "No matter, more was lost on Mohacs field." Organized Hungarian resistance came to a virtual end with the battle of Mohacs, which sealed the position of Turkey as a predominant power in the heart of Europe for the next two centuries p204 1535, a treaty with his "good friend," Francis.. complete religious liberty to the French in the Ottoman Empire, with the right to keep guard over the holy places.. end to the commercial predominance of Venice p228 [Toulon] Christian captives were openly sold.. Francis I, having asked for Turkish support, soon grew disturbed at the overt nature and extent of it, and its unpopularity with his subjects p263-4 link the two seas, the Black Sea, already an Ottoman lake, witht he Caspian.. planned eighteen centruies earlier by Seleucis Nicator.. difficulties after a third of the canal.. north, so the survivors concluded, was not for Moslems.. Sokollu, with his eyes still on trade with the East, now contemplated a second grand technical enterprise in the form of a canal across the Isthmus of Suez p272 When the Venetian minister in Istanbul first sounded the Grand Vezir as to the prospects of a settlement, Sokolu replied: "There is a wide difference between your loss and ours. In capturing Cyprus from you we have cut off one of your arms; in defeating our fleet you have merely shaved off our beard; the lopped arm will not grow again, but the shorn beard will grow stronger than before." The negotiation of the peace treaty received active support from an ambassador sent to the Porte by King Charles IX of France, who in common with the Venetians, feared the aggrandizement of Spain at her expense in the Levant p275 But it was the Venetian, Sultana Safiye Baffo, who continued to excercise the predominant influence, particularly in foreign affairs. In face of strong provocation from Venetain shipping, she dissuaded the Sultan from attacking her native Republic of St Mark; and indeed Venice obtained from the Porte the renewal of capitulations.. depths of corruption were reached when the Sultan himself became accessible to bribes on a substantial scale, as hi sshare of the sums paid by petitioners to his courtiers and ministers. This practice was introduced to Murad by a powerful favourite named Shemsi Pasha, who was known as the "Falconer of Petitions." Shemsi claimed descent from the Seljuk princes, and thus looked upon their supplanters, the Ottomans as enemies. On one occassion (so his biographer records) he emerged from the Sultan's presence in a state of some elation, declaiming: "At last I have avenged my dynasty on that of the House of Ottoman. As it caused our ruin I have now prepared its own." Asked how he had done this, the favourite replied: "By persuading the Sultan to share in the sale of his own favours. It is true that I offered him a tempting bait. Forty thousand ducats is no small sum. From this day the Sultan himself will set the example of corruption, and corruption will destroy the Empire." p279 The flaw in Suleiman's land reforms now became evident. It arose from the fact that, with the best motives but not, as time passed, with the best effects, his distribution of the principal fiefs was centralized in the capital, not decentralized as before in the hands of the provincial authorities. All too often it thus came to depend less on justice of claims to them than on palace intrigues and the corrupt distribution of favours. It led to the development of larger landed estates, which was the opposit of Suleiman's intention, and in the process to the growth of the hereditary principle. This accompanied the gradual ending of the period of continuous Turkish conquest with its profits to landholders, and thus to their increasing exactions from the peasantry p337 [ca 1666] Four days later Morosini surrendered the city of Candia, acknowledging that it was no longer tenable. Its seige had lasted longer than the seige of Troy. Koprulu Ahmed granted honourable terms, which were loyally observed. The depleted Venetian garrison were allowed to take with them a portion of their artillery, while the Cretans were left free to seek homes elsewhere. Venice kept ports in the island, which otherwise became Turkish territory, forming a natural barrier across the southern Aegean, making the eastern Mediterranean a Turkish lake. Its Greek Christian inhabitants welcomed the Turks as liberators from the oppression of Latin Catholic rule; moreover, as time went on they became, to a substantial extent, converts to Islam p349 [ca 1684] Morosini accomplished the conquest of the Morea, deriving support, despite firm Turkish action, from the obstreperous inhabitants of the Mani.. advanced northwrd to Corith, then beseiged and captured Athens. In the course of the Venetian bombardment the Parthenon, carefully preserved for two thousand years past, was hit by a shell. This blew up a powder magazine concealed there by the Turks and destroyed a large part of the temple, thus bequeathing to posterity a ruin. Afterward the Venetians evacuated Athens for fear of reprisals from the Turkish garrison still at Thebes, but removed the lion of Piraeus which now adorns, with a lioness from Delos, the Arsenal of Venice p356 Thus the English ambassador, Lord Paget, and his Dutch colleague, Jacob Colyer, now offered to act as mediators for a peace treaty between the Porte and the Christian powers on the beasis of uti_possidetis.. 1689 at Karlowitz, in Croatia.. Habsburg empire retained Slavonia, Transylvania, a large section of Hungary without Temesvar, and a stretch of territory east of the Tisza.. Poland regained Podolia, Kamieniec, and the western Ukranine, with a stretch of territory east of the Tisza, but withdrew from Moldavia. Venice retained the Morea, the island of Santa Maura, and most of her conquests in Dalmatia and Albania, but relinquished conquered territories north of the Isthmus of Corinth p365 But in the Balkans the prelates were at this time more inclined to seek Russian protection against the Catholic Austrians, who sought to convert them from the Orthodox to their own faith, rather than against the Moslem Turks, who did not seek to make converts. They pleaded with Moscow for slavation "from the Papists and Jesuits who rage against the Orthodox more than against the Turks and Jews." In fact Peter the Great, though ready enough in his own good time to emerge as Orthodox Christian champion against the infidel, was too wary a sovereign to be hurried into any such role, intent as he now was on his immediate strategic objective of establishing Russia as a power on the Black Sea p374 In fact, as previously in Cyprus and Crete, the Greeks were inclinded to welcome the Turks as liberators from the Latin tyranny of their Venetian masters, to whom they gave no assistance.. By the end of 1714 the republic had lost the whole of the Morea and the islands of the Archipelago p384 foreign diplomats had to contend with the problem of language.. foreign envoy this depended upon his own dragoman - his interpreter and intelligence agent - who was usually a Greek or a Levantine of Latin origin.. slanted interpretation, to influence talks as he chose.. calculated leakages to his fellow dragomen.. 1669.. high office of Dragoman of the Porte. Drawn as a rule from the Greek merchantile community, the Phanariots, his rank amounted in fact to that of a minister of foreign affairs p400 For England at this time favoured the expansion of Russia as opposed to that of her enemy France; nor did she yet support the policy of upholding the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. The government thus indicated that any attempt by France or Spain to obstruct the entrance of the Russian [Orloff 1770] fleet into the Mediterranean would be treated as a hostile act p412 To Burke "the Turks were an essentially Asiatic people who completely isolated themselves from European affairs" and had no part to play in the balance of power p440 cultural revival. Here was a Greek renaissance in the classical tradition, drawing its ideas from the liberal philosophers of the French Revolution and from the general diffusion of knowledge among the Greeks, as among enlightened Turks, since the time of Selim III. This took the form of improved education, endowed by wealthy Greeks through schools which revived the study of Greek history, and through the dissemination of books published abroad in the Greek language. Within it lay the seeds of an ultimate liberation and the rebirth of the Greek national spirit. Expatriates in the West played a part in it. So within the Empire itself, did the Phanariot Greeks in the service of the Porte; also the affluent Greek commercial communities of Istanbul, Salonika, Smyrna, and the various islands of the Greek Archipelago. Several of these in effect governed themselves, notably Chios, where the Turks kept the enlightened government system of the former Genoese chartered company under local officials and soldiers; and also the three "nautical islands" of Hydra, Spetsai, and Psara, seafaring communities whose sailors had a share in their ships p442 But if this were to succeed it must be systematically planned and coordinated. Here an integral part was played by the Greek merchant community, with its widespread contacts both in Greece and abroad. Its instrument of organization was the Philike_Hetaeria, or "Society of Friends," originally a product of the unsuccessful Greek rising against the Turks, with the aid of the Russians, in 1770. Its fouder toward the end of the century was teh Greek national poet Rhigas Pheraios, who gave to the revolution its Marseillaise. By birth a Vlach, hence a native of Rumania, he dreamed, in terms more poetic than realistic, not merely of a liberated Greece but of a multinational Balkan federation of autonomous Christian states, like a miniature Byzantine Empire, whose official language and church would be Greek and for which, so he imagined, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians and Rumanians would readily draw the sword in Christian unity for the cause of Greek freedom. Into this indeed Kara George and the leaders of the first Christian rebellion against the Sultan were in fact to be initiated. The execution of Rhigas by the Turks led to the decline of his Hetaeria. Now, howeverm in 1814, it was revived, not in Greece but in RUssiam by three Greek merchants of Odessa. In Athens itself it took sshape under cover of a Greek literary society, so as to spread its ideas among educated Greeks without arousing Turkish suspicions p445 It had all too soon become evident that no Greek would accept the sovereignty of another Greek. Hence the solution must evetually be found in a sovereign prince from the West p448 Right-wing Toryism in England had given place to a more liberal policy with the fall of Lord Castlereagh and the succession to his office of the liberal-minded George Canning, whose Philhellenic kinsman, Stratford Canning, was now appointed ambassador to the Porte. English consciences had been outraged by tales of the atrocities of Ibrahim Pasha, who was reputed to be enslaving Greeks with a view to the repopulation of the Peloponnese with Egyptians. Public opinion was stirred above all by the heroic sacrifice, in so noble a cause, of Lord Byron p457 extermination by modern arms of the nucleus of a military force five centuries old, successively the terror of Europe anf of the declining Ottoman Sultans themselves. It was completed with unremitting severity, by the slaughter throughout the provinces of thousands more. On the same day the Sultan abolished, by proclamation, the corps of the Janissaries; their name was proscribed and their standards destroyed. A month later the brotherhood of the Benktashi dervishes, who had for centuries aided and abetted them, with the destruction of its convents, the public exeution of its principal p459 Prussians who served the Sultan's purpose, in the person of the young Lieutenant Helmuth von Moltke.. start of a Germanic tradition in the Turkish armed forces, which was to prevail - not always altogether happily - into the twentieth century p469 Led now by Palmerston, strong diplomatic pressure was brought to bear upon the Sultan to insist on the Russian withdrawal [1833 Bosporus] , in return for concessions to Mehmed Ali and an Anglo-French guarantee against his further invasion. A firman was thus issued by the Sultan, confirming Mehmed Ali not only in the pashalik of Egypt and Crete, but in those of Syria, Damascus, Tripoli, Aleppo, and Adana p474 Hatti-Sherif of Guhane.. Tanzimat.. earliest constitutional document of any Islamic country [1839].. equal application of rights to all Ottoman subjects, regardless of race or creed p495 admiration of a newly arrived British officer for "the cool indifference of the Turks to danger." [ditto Korea] While forbidding all thoughts of surrender, the young officers, in English sporting fashion, organized a sweepstake to name the date when Silistria might be retireved p510 Indeed, following the publication of Gladstone's pamphlet, the Tsar was informed by General Ignatiev, the Russian ambassador at the Porte: "THe Bulgarian massacres have brought Russia wha she never had before - the support of British public opinion" p525 To the Greeks the British government had declared that it was "prepared to exert all its influence to prevent the absorption into a Slav state of any Greek population." The Balkan Moslems appealed for justice to Queen Victoria, as the empress of a hundred million Moslem subjects. The Albanians formed a league to "resist until death" any attempt on their lands. In this atmosphere the Tsar changed his attitude. In a secret agreement, soon revealed, between the British and Russian governments, his ambassador to London modified his original plans for a "great Bulgaria" p538 [Abdul Hamid] had in particular "a kind of horror of Mr Gladstone," who had returned to power in 1880, and who in turn saw the Sultan and his government as "a bottomless pit of fraud and falsehood" p548 It was from the outset Britain's genuine intention, as agreed by both parties, to withdraw her forces from Egypt as soon as it became possible to establish a stable native administration, still under Turkish sovereignty.. Abdul Hamid, who at first seems to have prided himself on a diplomatic victory against Britain, soon came to realize tha he had in fact committed a serious bluder.. Attempts to secure British withdrawal by Turkey, France and Russia over the next five years came to nothing, and the problems inherent in an Anglo-Egyptian administration of Egypt [replaing Dixie cotton?] became such as to preclude it p554 felt themselves to be Europeans.. dispatch to the Congress of Berlin of an Armenian delegation, requesting the appointment of a Christian governor-general - as in the Lebanon since its autonomy in 1861 p562 ambassadors, here on their own doorsteps, could see with their own eyes the true horror of those iniquities long perpetrated through the whole of Armenia, which the double-faced Sultan, behind the deceits of his official censorship, had sough to conceal.. Gladstone, at the age of eighty-six, emerged from retirement to make at Liverpool a last great speech against the "unspeakable Turk," whose empire deserved to be "rubbed oof the map" as a "dsigrace to civilization" and a "curse to mankind." He branded the Sultan as "Abdul the Great Assassin" p566 Abdul Hamid the Kaiser was now doubly welcome, since Germany, alon among the powers, had refrained from protesting against his Armenian massacres p590 The First Balkan War was a blitzkrieg, from three separate directions, which the Turkish armies, one defeat following another, survived for a bare six weeks. The Greeks, advancing from the south under the command of their German-educated Crown Prince Constantine, overcame a strong Turkish force, which they then trapped in a ravine to capture all its artillery and transport. When the Turks, reinforced, took up a stronger position, the Greek guns mowed them down, putting them to flight like a disorderly rabble. Then the Greeks pursued the rest of the turkish army across the border to liberate Salonika, marching into the city on the feast day of its patron saint, Demetrios, to be pelted with roses by delirious Greek crowds in the streets p592 But Bulgaria, in her obstinate belligerence, rejected Russian arbitration, threatened to occupy the whole of Macedonia.. lasted barely a month, confounding all expectation with a dramatic sequence of Bulgarian defeats, and wholly reversing the balance of power between the Balkan sttes. The Serbs and Greeks, at first taken by surprise, soon rallied to win resounding victories in the river valleys to the north and in the mountains to the east of Salonika p607 British failure at Galipoli gave a breathing space to the Young Turk triumvirate, leaving it free to pursue, without external interference, a premeditated internal policy for the final elimination of the Armenian race. Their proximity to the Russians on the Caucasus front furnished a convenient pretext for their persecution, on a scale far exceeding the atrocitiesof Abdul Hamid, through the deportation and massacre of one million Armenians, more that half of whome perished #@# American antiquity. Cornog, Evan American Scholar; Autumn98, Vol. 67 Issue 4, p53, 9p "A republican government," Clinton said, "instead of being unfriendly to the growth of the fine arts, is the appropriate soil for their cultivation." Monarchies, by contrast, "create a barrier against the ascent of genius to the highest stations, and they cast the most distinguished talents and the most exalted endowments in the back ground of society." The proof lay in the achievements of the Athenians. The Acropolis, he declared, is "the most interesting place on the globe" and demonstrates "the immortal honour, which a small republic has acquired, by the cultivation of the arts.".. The crucial shortcoming was in the elite: "There is not so much concentrated knowledge in so many individuals as in Europe." To make matters worse, Clinton continued, what intellectual life there was had been distracted by factional politics.. While it was a common conceit that the Indians of North America were the degenerate remnants of the lost tribes of Israel (William Penn and Roger Williams both espoused this view), Clinton rejected the theory in favor of Asiatic origins and a possible link to the ancient Scythians. Citing Herodotus's description of the Scythians' cruelty as warriors, he believed that from them "we may derive the practice of scalping... and it is not improbable, considering the maritime skill and distant voyages of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, that America derives part of its population from that source by water, as it undoubtably has from the northeast parts of Asia by land." #@# Sons of Conquerors, Hugh Pope, Overlook Duckworth, 2005 p25 core genius of the Turks is military organization. It is Turkic rulers who forged most of the great empires of the Middle East and Central Asia. p42 The turkic peoples were not necessarily ashamed of their ruthless, all-conquering reputation. As late as the 17th century, Ottoman diarist Evliya Celebi penned tales of fantastical barbarity as the Ottomans sallied out each year.. "If we make a 40-year peace with you, the who are we, the Ottomans, to make war against?" p72 Byzantine chronicler Theophylactus of Simocatta reported 1400 years ago the boast of early Turks that earthquakes were rare in their lands. The truth is, tremors are frequent.. The other Turkish boast, Theophylactus said, was they had no epidemics of disease. SImilarly, when HIV/AIDS swept the world in the 1990s, many Turks mistakenly believed their race was immune. p132 He told me how he had set things straight in 1992, when the late Turkish President Turgut Ozal gathered the presidents of the newly independent Turkic states in Ankara and urged them to sign a strong declaration of common Turkic purpose.. "Mr. President, we just left the Russian Empire. We don't want to enter another emprire now." [Kazak Nazarbayev] p152 Peter Fleming, a British traveler through Xinjiang in the 1930s, was horrified by Uygur attitudes, especially when he passed a donkey abandoned on the roadside to die of its hideous sores. "The TUrkis are completely heartless with their animals, whose breakdown is accelerated by callous neglect" p189 In the centuries prior to the Russian conquest in the 1860s, Central Asia's governing class and military were as a rule Turkic, and preserved the clan structure of the steppe. Persian was usually the culture of literature and the administration in the towns. Arabic was the lingua franca of religion and science, like the Latin of Europe's medieval scholars p210 Over the centruies, the Turks have found many ways to Europe. It has often been a prmised land they gilded as the kizil elma, or golden apple, of their literary imagination. Not counting proto-Turkish raiders like Atilla the Hun, the first of these tenacious infiltrators crossed what was to become known as the Turkish Straits in the 14th century. Byzantine Emperor John Cantucazene had hired them as mercenaries in a civil war. He had offered only a season's right to plunder his Balkan territories in return for their services, but the Ottoman Turks staye don, telling him it was "not Muslim custom to give up territory conquered from the infidel." Ottiman troops went on to conquer much of southeastern Europe. A more subtle invasion of northwestern Europe started in 1961, also by invitation, as Turkish guest workers set out to help power Germany's post-war economic boom p221 Izvestia, for instance, reported in 1998 that scientists had found a 72% correlation between genes of American Indians and a village in Russia's Central Asian republic of Tuva - and that the TUrkic Tuvans looked exactly like American Indians too. Likewise, a University of Arizona study found a strong linkage between 19 native American groups and 15 from Siberia p223 "Native Americans and Turks worship the wolf. They value the color turquoise. Shamans exist in both world," he said. "There is a common legend, too. Kukulkan was a man who came by the sea and taught everything in the Manas epic of the Kyrgyz. In