soc.culture.greek,soc.culture.russian,alt.religion.christian.east-orthodox,soc.history.early-modern,alt.help.with.homework,relcom.politics,grk.news grep -nA1 '\#\@\#' ~/byz/byzhst.txt | sed '/--/ d'| sed '/#@#/ d' > byzhst.idx #@# Sourcebook for a Modern Byzantine Macro-Byzantine Historiographical Distillation Modern Ivy Byzantine Encyclios Paideia Epitome #@# TABLE OF CONTENTS BY LINE NUMBER (Line numbers approximate as inserting index below disturbs the numbers) #@# 171- Egypt, Greece, Rome, Freeman Oxford 1996 ISBN0-19-872194-3 674- Phoenicians & West Aubet trTurton Cambridge ISBN 0 521 41141 6 766- Podhoretz, Prophets, Free Press, 2002 ISBN 0-7432-1927-9 889- Basic Judaism Steinberg 1947..75 Harvest 0-15-61069801 1017- Gospel acc Moses, Athol Dickson ISBN 0-7394-3550-7 brazospress.com 1053- GOD 101 Rabbi Terry Bookman ISBN 0-399-526258-7 2000 1143- Eidelberg Judaic_Man ISBN0-391-03970-9 1996 p104 1184- Jewish Customs, Bloch, Ktav 1980 1196- Jacobs, Holy Living: saints &saintliness in Judaism ISBN 0-87668-822-9 1212- Vox Graeca Guide Pronunc Classical Greek Wm Sydney Allen Cambrigde 1272- SEPTUAGINT LAMENTATIONS GREEK HEBREW INTERPRONOUNCIATION 1296- Pronounciation of Greek and Latin Edgar Sturtevant (Yale) 1920..1940 1318- Warren Treadgold, Hist_Byz_State&Society, sup.org 1997 1613- H A Gribb Mohammedanism Cumberledge (Oxford '49 '54) p31 " And 1619- 7Essays on Christian Greece, Demetrios Bikelas, Garnder, Paisley, 1890 1665- Byzantine Christianity, Magoulias, Rand McNally 1970 1684- Obolensky [Oxford], ByzCommonwealth, svots.edu 1982 orig 1979- Iorga Byzantium After Byzantium ISBN 973-9432-09-3 2051- Byzantine Achievement, Robert Byron, Russell, 1964 [orig 1929] 2179- Charanis [Rutgers], Stud Demogr Byz Emp, London, 1972 2348- Kazhdan, Ch Byz Cult 11&12c 1985 ucal 2354- Kazhdan 1982 DumbOak ISBN 0-88402-103-3 2393- Alan Harvey Eco Exp Byz Emp Cambridge 1989 ISBN 0-521-37151-1 2408- Constantelos Christian Hellenisnm ISBN 0-89241-523-1 caratzas.com 2503- John Meyendorf, Byzantium & Rise of Russia, Cambridge, 1980 repr 2660- "Were Ancient Heresies National or Social Movements in Disguise", A 2759- Islam & Oriental Churches, Wm Ambr Shedd, Young Peoples Missionary 2792- Robinsom Claremone Nag Hammadi Henrickson 1986 ISBN0-913573-16-7 2824- Antioch Downey Princeton 1961 [heavily refs Malalas] 2870- Brock&Harvey Holy Women Syr Orient UCal 1987 ISBN 0-520-05705-8 2922- Mircea Eliade HistReligIdeas 1985 Chicago ISBN 0-226-20404-9 3005- Schmemann HistRdEOrth svots.edu 1977 (1963 Holt, tr L Kesich) 3722- Vladmir Lossky, Myst Theology, StVlad 1976 (1944) ISBN 0-913836-31-1 3792- Florovsky EaFath4c (v7 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsansalt FL9490 1987 ISBN 4068- Florovsky AspChHist (v4 ClxWx) Buchervertriebsanstalt FL9490 1987 4240- St Isaac Nineveh, Ascetic Life, St Vlad, ISBN 88141-077-2: 4289- Columbia Hist World Harper 1972 ISBN 0-88029-004-8 [foreword by 4616- Columbia Hist Wst Philos 1999 ISBN1-56731-347-7 4850- Zizioulas, Being as Communion, StVlad, 1985, ISBN 0-88141-029-2 4924- Cavarnos ModGrkThough 1986 1969 0-914744-11-9 4987- Conley Rhet Eur Trad 1990 0-226-11489-9 5044- Kennedy Hist Class Rhet 1994 Princeton 0-691-00059-x 5072- Pelikan Divine Rhetoric 2001 0-88141-214-7 5156- College Manual Rhetoric, Charles Sears Baldwin (Yale) Longmans 1906 5229- Perelman New Rhetoric 1958 Notre Dame 1969 0-268-00446-3 5375- Diplmcy (Negoc Souverains) Callieres 1647-1717 1983 Leicstr 0718512162 5589- Pers Self Portr Oldham & Morris 1990 Bantam 0-553-05757-X 5662- 48 Laws of Power, Rbt Greene & Elffers 1998 Viking 0670881465 6014- Adcock Greek Art War1957 UCal 0-520-0005-6 6070- Handel, Masters of War, 2001, 3ed, frankcass.com 0-7146-8132-6 6188- Thry Intl Pol Waltz (Harvard,Berkeley) 1979 MGH 0-07-554852-6 6265- Keohane&Nye(Harvard) Power&Interdep 2ed 1989 ScottForsmn 0-673-39891-9 6384- Strateg Tht Am 1952-1996 Trachtenberg PSQ 104#2 1989 6423- Conv Deter & Conv Retal in Eur Huntington Intl Scty 8#3 Wtr83-4 6459- Clash Civ Huntington Frn Aff Smr 1993 6511- How Countries Democratize Huntngton PSQ 106#4 1991 6564- IntroArts Collins 1969 Columbia 6685- Theol Icon Ouspensky trGythiel 1978 svots.edu 0-88141-124-8 6727- Music W Civ P H Lang (Columbia) Norton 1997 1941 0-393-04074-7 7190- Wm Ted deBary E Asian Civ Harvard1988 0-674-22405-1 7244- Solomon, Chinese Negotiating Behavior 1-878379-86-0 7250- Arayama & Mourdoukoutas China Against Herself 1999 1-56720-245-4 7265- Jaspers Philos&World 1963 Regnery 0-89526-757-8 7316- Dilworth, Philosophy in World Perspective, Yale, 1989, ad_passitum 7382- Massie, Land of Firebird, Touchstone, 1980 ISBN 0-671-46059-5 7613- Florinsky (Columbia),Russia, Macmillan 1953 8082- Imperial Russia, 1998, ed Burbank, indiana.edu, 0-253-33462-4 8154- NY Times 1Feb1892 Serfdom Again in Russia p1 8168- NY TImes 2Apr1877 Socialistic Spectre of Europe p4 8193- Atkinson, EndRuLandCommune Stanford 1983 8315- Peasant19cRu Vicinich Stanford 1968 8394- Redfield Peasant Society 1956 Chicago LC56-6654 8449- Keyes Peasant Strategies in Asian Societies JAsnStd 8/83 42#4 8474- Edral&Whiten [St Andr Scot] Human Egalitarianism Curr_Anthro 35#2 1994 8500- Macey Govt&PeasRu 1861-1906 1987 ISBN 0-87580-122-6 8552- Moral Economy Peasant J C Scott 1976 Yale ISBN 0-300-01862-2 8684- NY Times 2Jul1876 Russian Village Commune p4 8712- Soil & Soul Hellberg-Hirn Ashgate 1998 ISBN 1-85521-871-2 8789- Russia & Soul Pesmen Cornell 2000 ISBN 0-8014-3739-3 8803- Nomads & Sedentary Castillo 1981 ISBN 968-12-0109-4 8835- Rancour-laFerriere Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and Cult 8875- Russia 1812-1945, Graham Stephenson, Praeger 1969 8986- Russian Negotiationg Behavior, Schecter, 1-878379-78X 8998- Randall, Reluctant Capitalists: Russia..Transition 0-415-92824-9 9021- Weber ProtestantEth&SpirCaptlsm 1904..30 trTalcParsons 0-415-25406-x 9085- van den Haag Capitalism:Src Hostlty 1979 Epoch 0-89948-000-4 9130- Mises Bureaucracy Yale 1944 Arlington 1969 87000-068-3 9153- Bastiat Law 1848 Dean Russell FEE 1950 9177- Sowell Knowledge & Decisions 1980 Basic 0-465-03737-2 9401- Bickel, Morality_of_Consent,Yale,1975 9446- Chas Beard PSQ 27#1 3/12 Supreme Court - Usurper or Grantee? 9514- Dollar&PlcyMix, Mundell, Princtn Ess Inl Fnc 85, 5/1971 LC750-165467 9549- Ottoman Centuries, Kinross, 1977, isbn 0-688-08093-6 9867- Charlemont in Greece & Turkey 1749 Trigraph London ISBN 0-9508026-5-4 9943- Biddle [later Bank of US prez], Greece 1806, ed McNeal, PennStateU 1993 10098- Mod Greece Woodhouse Praeger/Faber 1968..91 10650- Gerolymatos Red Acropolis Black Teror 2004 ISBN 0-465-02743-1 10714- NYTimes 24Mar1974 Greece's Worst Crisis p220 10731- Pettifer, New Macedonia question, St Martin's 1999 ISBN0-312-22240-8 10810- Yugosl Communism&Maced Question Palmer & King(US dipl)208-00821-7 1971 10825- NY Times 24Feb1878 Russo-Turkish Treaty p1 10842- Raphael Patai, The_Arab_Mind, hatherleighpress.com 2002,1983,1976 10907- Trifkovic, Sword of Prophet, ReginaOrthodoxPress.com,2002 11121- Sproul & Saleeb, Dark Side of Islam 2003 IBN 1-58134-441-4 11135- Mohammed 1902 Margolith Putnam 11148- Musl W Eur Nielsen Edinburgh 2004 3ed 11162- Tsugitaka Muslim SOc 2004 ISBN 0-415-33254-0 11214- Luke & Keith-Roach Hbk Palestine & Transjordan 1930 Macmillan 11236- Russia & Mediterranean 1797-1807 Norman E Saul Chicago 1970 SBN 11355- Nesselrode & Rus Rappr w Britain, Ingle, California, 1976, 11409- 1983 Thessaloniki Inst Balk Stud "Les Relations Greco-Russes 11434- A J P Taylor, From_Napoleon_to_the_Second_International (Essays on 11498- Disraeli, Andre Maurois (aka Emile Herzog) trMiles 1928 LC55-14913 11757- Fischer Albion's Seed 1989 Oxford 0-19-506905-6 11868- Soc Darwinism Am Thought Hofstadter 1944 1955 Beacon 0807054615 11935- Lincoln's Vitures Wm Lee Miller 2003 Knopf 0-375-40158-x 12017- Kagan Origins War Prsvn Peace 1995 ISBN 0-385-42374-8 12059-Thos Andr Bailey (Stanford) Dilp_Hist_Am_People (9ed=1974) PrenticeHall 12110- 70yrs Panslavism Russia 1800-1870, Frank Fadner, Georgetown, 1962 12152- Panslavism, Kohn, Notre Dame, 1953 12171- Petrovich Panslavism Columbia 1956 12218- Tschizeskij Ru Intlx Hst trOsborne Ardis AnnArbor 1978 12239- Russian Thinkers Isaiah Berlin 194..1948 penguin.com 0-14-013625-8 12332- Kaplan Arabists 1995 FP ISBM 0-02-874023-8 12451- Rose, Origins of the War, Putnam Knickerbocker, 1915 12463- NY Times 11Dec1917 p13 "Says Germans Aided Armenian Killings" 12477- Vahakh Dadrian German Responsibility Arm Genocide 1996 12526- May 23, 1943, Goebbels Diaries, Lochner, Doubleday, 1948 " A report 12535- Peacemakers (aka Paris 1919) Margaret Mac Millan, 12625- NY Times 22Aug1920 Red Troops Form Link With Kemal p1 12633- NY Times 25 Nov 1920 Kemal and Soviet Plan Free Islam p17 12650- TURKS ARE EVICTING NATIVE CHRISTIANS NY TIMES 12jun15 p4 12657- German Directed the Turks at Van NY Times 6oct15 p3 12668- NY Times 14Nov1915 Bulgaria to become Catholic? p2 12677- NYTimes 10Dec1921 Metaxakis ELected Patriarch p4 12702- NY Times 11Jan1923 Millions Must Quit Homes Near East p1 Edwin L James 12735- NY Times 20May1927 Athos Become Monastic Republic 12743- NY Times 10May1925 Tikhon to Have Successor Unless Sov Prevents x11 12751- NY Times 17Jan1921 Reds Convert Refugees p3 12755- NY Times 8Jun1921 Soviet-Turk Plot nipped by British p15 12768- NY Times 11Nov1919 Kemal, Rebel Turk Leader, Proposes Alli w Lenin,p1 12775- 13Sep34 NYTimes Venizelos's Threat Saloniki Stirs Colony 12783- Kondylis Backs Greek Jews NY Times 19Oct35 p8 12789- GREEK CHILDREN FACE STARVATION NY TIMES 21Sep1941 12796- GREECE INVADED 2 YRS AGO NYTimes 28OCT42 p8 12802- GREEKS' EXTINCTION BY FAMINE FEARED NY TImes 27May 1942 p19 12809- The Many Lives of Moses Hadas Columbia alum mag Fall/2001 12841- Catholic Intlxl&ConservtvPolAm1950-85 Allitt (Emory) 1993 Cornell ISBN 12897- Story of Qumran: How Not to Do Archaeology, PR Davies, Bibl Arch 12/88 12912- Diane Ravitch Revionists Revised 0-645-06943-6 12921- Diane Ravitz 2000 Left Back S&S 0-684-84417-6 12941- Kornich (CUNY), Underachievement, ChasThomas SpfdIl 1965 LC65-16650 13037- 20% Dropout Rate Found For Italian-Americans May 1, 1990 B4 NY Times 13056- Religious Pref & Worldly Success Mayer&Sharp AmSocRvu 25#2 (4/62) 13071- Lehrer Religion as Det Edu Attainment Soc Sci Rsc 28 1999 13077- Soros by Kaufman 0-375-40585-2 13107- Surely You're Joking Mr Feynman Norton 1985 393-01921-7 13190- Condi,Felix, 2005 Newmarket 1-55704-675-1 13213- Feinstein & Symons Attainment 2'school Oxf Eco Ppr 4/99 51#2 13220- 1st3yrChild Karl Konig Floris2004 FrGstlbnStuttgt1957 ISBN0-86315-452-2 13291- Grosjean, Life w2 Lang Harvard 1982 0-674-53091-8 13363- LITURGICAL MISTRANSLNS BY BP ISAIAH DENVER TheChristianActivist.com v9 13381- Barry Farber How Learn Any Lang MJF 1991 1-56731-543-7 13409- Nathan Glazer in New Biling USC 5/80 ed M Ridge Transxn 0-88474-104-4 13432- Sowell, Ethnic America, 1981 Basic ISBN 0-465-02074-7 13503- Cordell Warlds & Enslavmt in Lovejoy Afr Bndg 1986 Wisc 0-299-97020-5 13524- Peter Te Yuan Hao 17FEB1955 NYU Ed D dissertation "J2895JAn1355" 13534- Out of the Barrio - Linda Chavez - 1991 Basic/Harper 0-465-05430-7 13601- Glazer & Moynihan Beond Melt Pot MIT 1963 13664- Irving Howe 1976 World of Our Fathers 0-15-146353-0 13724- Kolesnik & Power, Catholic Education, MGH 1965 LC 65-20975 13775- Sayre (Columbia) & Kaufman (Yale) Governing NYC Russell Sage 1960 14149- Ungovernable City Yates (Yale) 1977 MIT 0-262-74013-3 14181- Bullock, Hitler&Stalin 1993 ISBN 0-679-72994-1 14359- Perret 1999 Eisenhower ISBN 0-375-50046-4 14462- Unholy Trinity [aka Ratlines] Aarons & Loftus St Martins 1998 14608- Lenczowski SovPersUSFrnPol Cornell 1982 14738- Conservatism as an Ideology Huntington Am Pol Sci Rvu 51#2 1957 14752- ModTimes 20s-80s PlJohnson Harper 1983 ISBN0-06-015159-5 15204- Faith for a Lifetime, Abp Iakovos ISBN 0-385-19595-8 15232- Ethno-Genetic Abstracts 15549- Human Migrations (Years Ago) 15556-Language Trees #@# Egypt, Greece, Rome, Freeman Oxford 1996 ISBN0-19-872194-3 [Grgrgrandson of Archdeacon of Exeter] p14 water for its irrigation came down the Nile in annual floods, most of which originated in summer rains in the Ethiopian maountains. With the floods came silt, and the combination of fertile soil and ready water could produce yields of crops three to four times those from normal rain-fed soil p25 dead man would no longer be judged on his relationship with the king but on his own p31 influx of migrants from Palestine, which was enjoying a period of particular prosperity..called them Hyskos, literatlly 'chiefs of foreign lands'.. take over Memphis.. allied themselves with the Nubians in the far south and they were thus able to reduce the territory of the Egyptian kings to the land around Thebes p37 Thuthmose III, the most successful conqueror of Asia, initiated a policy of bringing back Palestinian princes to Egypt as hostages for the good behaviour of their home cities.. Asiatic gods p40 Religious belief was so deeply embedded in the Egyptian world picture that Akhenaten was, in effect, challenging the intellectual structure.. temples were closed down and their goods were confiscated. The economic structure of the state was upset as lands were transferred direct to the king p43 Ramses is remembered because of the vast building programme he carried out during his reign. Nearly half of the temples which still stand p49 Homer wrote in the Odyssey that medicine in Egypt was more developed than anywhere in the world, and Herodotus, writing some three centuries later, agreed with him.. doctor who followed a text exactly would not be blamed if the patient died, but if he disregarded it and the patient suffered he could even be sentenced to death p55 Osiris, who presided over the trial which decided his future in the afterlife.. forty-two judges.. not killed or stolen, committed adultery, or had sex with a boy. He must never have insulted the king, tresspassed, damaged a grain measure, or harmed the neighbours' land. At the end of the trial the heart.. weighed against a feather. If it was too heavily weighed.. devoured by a monstrous.. no possibility of an afterlife without a preserved body p56 obsessive fear that the deceased might demean his status by having to engage in physical labour, and it became the custom to enclose small figures, the shabtis, as a model labour force p57 stability was, in fact, maintained by occupying and feeding the many peasants who worked on the great building projects during the months of the floods p63 earliest recorded epic, that of Gilgamesh, a warrior king.. first of antagonism and then of comradeship, of Gilgamesh and a wild creature.. Among the stories recorded is that of a great flood.. Parallels have been drawn between its opening sentence and that of the Odyssey p64 Babylonian society allowed more freedom of enterprise than of Sumer. Trade was conducted by individuals rather than the state and landowners were free to exploit their land p65 By the thirteenth century BC the writers of Ugarit were using only twenty-two consonants. At some point (scholars have put forward dates as early as 1300 BC and as late as 1000 BC), the Phoenician cities developed their own alphabet, and probably transmitted it to the Greeks in the ninth or eighth century BC p69 Genesis, which has parallels with a similar account in the Babylonian epic Enuma_Elish. In both myths God (Yahweh) fashions the world from a primordial abys and his work of creation lasts six days after which he rests on the seventh. The story of the flood is, as has already been said, Sumerian in origin. The Garden of Eden seems rooted in a Near Easyern tradition, probably Mesopotamian, of an idyllic garden from which rivers flow. The theme of the righteous sufferer found in the book of Job, perhaps the most profound and penetrating book of the Hebrew scriptures, is paralleled by similar stories in Babylonian literature p73 Greek mercenaries soon formed part of the Egyptian army (together with Phoenicians, Syrians, and Jews, many of whom where refugees from the Assyrian conquests). A thousand kilometers up the Nile some of their signatures have been found inscribed on the leg of a colossal statue of Ramses II p74 united them under Persian rule. With Median troops and the rich pasturelands of the Zagros mountains under his control, he could now expand.. uncontrollable that it was impossible to impose authoritarian rule. Part of Cyrus' genius was to recognize this, and so long as the ultimate source of authority of himself as King of Kings and the Persian god Ahura-Mazda were recognized p78 In Egypt, there are tomb paintings of Cretans bringing cloth as tribute, while Minoan pottery is found not only in Egypt but also along the Syro-Palestine coast p81 Greek entered Greece with invaders from the east about 2000 BC p83 trading routes on which they depended may have been disrupted by the Sea Peoples.. legend, preserved by the later Greeks, that Mycenaean civilization had been destroyed by invaders from the north-west, the Dorians p84 tenth century there appears to have been a migration of Ionic speakers to Asia Minor, where they colonized the central part of the coast, a region later known as Ionia. From the plains of Boetia and Thessaly another dialect, Aeolic, appears to have spread to the northern coastline of Asia Minor p93 Cronos himself fathers the Olympian gods, who under the leadership of Zeus have to do battle with the Titans, children of Uranus and Gaia, before they can reign supreme p97 far easier to cross the Aegean from west to east than to cross mainland Greece from east to west across the [Alpine] Pindus mountains.. For the Greeks, whose lives were always frugal and where a surplus had to be painfully won from the land, the east offered a glittering lure.. best Greek harbours are on the east coast p103 final result was to establish a Greek presence in the Mediterranean from the Black Sea in the northeast to the coast of modern France and Spain in the west. The catalyst was almost certainly population increase in mainland Greece p104 Sometimes, as in the case of Thera, each family with more than one son was ordered to provide one of them for the colony, certainly the fairest way of dealing with land shortage and a good indication of the well-established authority of the polis by the late seventh century p108 Greek goods have been found far up the river valleys in the Russian interior and Scythian art, like Etruscan, becomes heavily influenced by that of Greece. One Scythian king, Scyles, adopted a Greek lifestyle so enthusiastically that he wa skilled by his own people when seen participating in Dionysiac revels p122 word the Spartans used of themselves, homoioi, 'those who are similar'. Uniformity was imposed upon them by fear, the continuous threat of revolt by those they had subjugated. The Sparta state became heavily militarized.. such a paranoic society should gradually isolate p128 destroying the priveleged position..debt ownership were abolished, and Solon even claims that he searched overseas for Athenians who had been sold abroad. The payment of a part of any produce also ended.. opening up of government to a wider class of citizens.. Lesser offices were open to the next two classes, but the thetes were excluded from office. They had to wait another hundred years, when the desparate need to use them as rowers in the expanding Athenian navy p156 conclusions about the differences between free and unfree states and the consequences of unrestricted pride. The Greeks, with their simple life, co-operative political arrangements, and belief in liberty, are, in Herodotus' eyes, superior, and this explains their success p165 condemn an opponent as having pro-Persian, often merely aristocratic, sympathies and was a political rallying cry for decades to come p184 young boy's initiation.. sexual element of the relationship appears to have been restrained, and may not have involved any actual penetration.. substitute for women by older men who had not yet reached the age of marriage.. family would be vigilant to ensure he was not being abused.. For a Greek male to accept the submissive role in a homosexual relationship, or to be paid for this role, was considered so degrading that, in Athens at least, it resulted in the loss of citizen rights p205 most cases were heard by juries of ordinary citizens. A roll of 6,000 citizens was drawn up for each year and from these a jury was selected for each case. The more serious the case the larger the jury, with a maximum of 2,500.. between 5 and 6 per cent of citizens over the age of 30 would be required each year if all the posts of the Boule, the juries, and the administration were to be filled. With the ban on reselction for most posts, this meant that virtually everyone was involved in administration or government at some point in their lives. Even Socrates, who attempted to avoid political life completely, served his time on the Boule p212-3 some 150 subject states.. Poorer Athenians were often given preference in the allocation of places in these settlements. (Pericles' motives, claimed Plutarch, included the desire to rid the city of riff-raff.).. Athenian empire was in many cases a conservative and even defensive.. never the deliberate and ruthless exploitation of resources on the scale followed by later trading states such as Venice p222 It was Sophocles who introduced the powerful independent woman into tragedy, a revolutionary move in a city where women were kept largely in seclusion. Sophocles writes of an earlier archaic world, one of heroes where loyalties are to clans and kin rather than to a city. It is a cruel and inflexible one with the ways of the gods incomprehensible to man p224 Euripides' plays break through the conventions of tragedy by showing human beings alone and responsible for their own actions, however strongly they are controlled by emotional forces they cannot understand. p230 Plato's background was aristocratic.. humiliation of his native Athens at the hands of Sparta. The trial of Socrates appears to have marked a turning-point for him. Democracy for Plato was synonymous with mob rule p233 As Karl Popper has argued in his The_Open Society_and its_Enemies, Plato represents a direct threat to the democratic tradition, and any ruling elite which claims it has the right to impose its own ideals on society is his heir p237 in his Ethics Aristotle argues that goodness cannot be achieved through reason alone.. integrated framework of ethical behaviour.. account of 158 different constitutions, for instance. Insofar as he favoured one form of government it was democracy p241 Thucydides has no illusions about human behaviour. No one before and few after have detailed quite so vividly the appalling cruelty with which men can act when under stress p247 Sparta's inability to act with any kind of sensitivty [to this day!].. 382, when her troops were sent to intervene in civil unrest in her old enemy, Thebes. The city was simply seized, to the universal condemnation of the Greek world.. Seventy states, including Thebes, eventually joined what is known as the Second Athenian League (378-377).. It was to be Thebes, not Athens, who would humble Sparta p251 If Dionysius [Syracuse] had defeated Carthage, the history of the western Mediterranean might have taken a different turn. It would have left him free, for a start, to move into Italy.. 390 the Etruscans and Rome had both been overrun by Celtic.. p252 In his speech Jason [Thessaly] listed Macedonia, a monarchial state on his northern borders, as among his targets. Its timber would allow him to build a fleet.. Macedonia that was to do the conquering.. Pindus [Alp] Mountains, for instance, forming a natural barrier with Molossis (later Epirus).. Macedonian monarchy had shown remarkable survival skills. By the fourth century it was laready some 300 years old.. kings themselves claimed that their family was of [Argive] Greek origin p255 Demosthenes was leader of a democratic faction.. majestic defences of liberty.. hard to apportion blame.. Phillip was steadily moving towards Athens' interests p257 Isocrates (436-338 BC). In a recitation written for the Olympic Games of 380 he had argued that the only way to bring unity to the fragmented Greek world was to launch a national crusade under one leader against Persia.. power struggle for the Persian throne and both Egypt and Babylon were in rebellion p258 Alexander was aware of a heritage that took him back on his mother's side to Achilles and on his father's to Heracles.. tutor he had the most famous intellectual figure of the time, Aristotle.. self-confident, endlessly curious, and reckless p265 siege of Tyre suggested a lack of balance in Alexander's personality. He was beginning to see himself as something more than a human.. distance between Alexander and his commanders was becoming apparent. Darius, brooding on his defeat, now offered Alexander his empire to the west of the Euphrates and an enormous ransom for his family.. was set on the humiliation of Darius p267 eastwards his own position became less strong. His men had achieved victory beyond their wildest.. Parenion, one of Phillip's most seasoned commanders, who had consistently opposed what he saw as Alexander's recklessness, was also assassinated on Alexander's orders.. began to rely on local mercenaries.. Bactria and Sogdania, modern Pakistan and Afghanistan.. Hindu Kush were crossed in April 329 p268 As ever, Alexander showed his inventiveness and flexibility. His archers and javelin men came into their own against bands of nomadic tribesmen who circled the Macedonian armies. Even the most impregnable of citadels fell to his tactics.. 30,000 young men were taken to be taught Greek and trained for Alexander's Armies. Bactria was to become and remain an enclave of Greek culture for centuries to come.. king was not removed from his commanders - he ate and drank, often heavily, alongside them. The tradition of the Persian monarchy was very different p269 myths that both Heracles and Dionysus originated in India.. Indus RIver was crossed amidst great celebrations.. Taxila, whose motives appear to have been to use the Macedonians to defeat rival princes further east.. monsoons had now started. By the time the army had reached the River Beas it had endured seventy days of continuous heavy rainfall and was close to mutiny. For the first time in his life, Alexander accepted defeat. He claimed that a sacrifice has shown the gods did not want him to continue further and ordered the retreat. There was a jubilation in the ranks which Alexander was never to forgive p271 Opis, he announced that all Macedonians who were unfit for further service because of age or injury would be disbanded and allowed to return home.. seen as a gesture of rejection.. became increasingly absolutist.. proclaimed that all Greek exiles could return to their native cities.. disrupt their economies and political stability as the exiles returned p273 Alexander's immediate legacy was not, therefore, an empire. Rather it was a form of monarchy, based on absolute power, an aura of divinity, and conspicuous consumption. This was to be the model he bequeathed to the Hellenistic kings who succeeded him. For generations he became the archetype of the world emperor p274-5 Celts raided down into Greece in the early third century, sacking Delphi in 279, and it was only by confronting them in 277 that Antigonus Gonatas secured the kingdom of Macedonia for himself. Another Celtic people, the Galatians, settled in central Anatolia.. only two Seleucid monarchs survived to die in bed.. 'bread and circus' for the masses began in this period.. [Alexandria] library may have held nealry half a million books.. ambition of acquiring copies of every known text p279 Aetolian League in central Greece gained its cohesion from successful defence of the area against the Celts. After saving Delphi in 279 p292 Even in Judaea, the mountainous region around Jerusalem, a Greek education became popular.. Ptolemies were replaced by the Seleucids in 200.. much more intrusive.. humiliated by the Romans in 168.. eyes on the treasury of the great temple at Jerusalem.. dedicate the temple to Zeus (in 167), guerrilla warfare.. Judas Maccabaeus p294 Celtic groups spread widely across the continent..tribal groups living under the leadership of warrior elites.. Strabo, writing in the first century BC.. "frankness and high-spiritedness of their temperament must be added the traits od childish boastfulness and love of decoration.. vanity which makes them unbearable in victory and so completely downcast in defeat" p297 Parthian empire. Mithriades was a gifted ruler who was quick to exploit the position of his empire as a middleman between his two most powerful enemies, China in the east, and after the demise of the Seleucids, Rome in the west.. silk in return for the majestic horses provided by the Parthians.. Chinese were the only people who knew the secret of the moment when to destroy the larvae of the silkworm p305 Etruscan [Tyrrhenian, non Indo-Eur] supremacy along the coast came under threat from about 550 BC as new waves of Greeks fled from Persian expansion. The Phocaean colony at Alalia in eastern Corsica was particularly threatening. In 540 BC the Etruscans, with some Phoenician support, defeayed the Phocaeans at sea and forced the abandonment of the settlement, but the Phocaeans had also settled in southern France and they now blocked Etruscan trade there. Meanwhile the Carthaginians (Phoenicians who had established the city of Carthage and made it a springboard for further colonization) had consolidated their position in Sardinia and on the western coas of Sicily and gradually forced the Etruscans off the sea p309 Form the eighth through the end of the sixth century Rome.. not hereditary and each new king seems to have been acclaimed by the people of Rome meeting in the comitia_curiata, an assembly of thirty groups of clans.. symbol of imperium was the fasces, a bundle of rods bound round an axe p310 aristocracy were not necessarily anti-Etruscan.. protectors of Rome against tyranny.. intense suspicion of any individual who tried to use popular support to build personal power.. two magistrates, the consuls, who would hold power for one year but who could not be immediately re-elected p320 As the Phoenician coastal cities were overrun in the seventh century, in turn by Assyrians, Egyptians, and Persians, Carthage emerged as an independent city ideally suited to act as the focus for the commerce of the other former Phoenician colonies of western Mediterranean. Her dominance over them was gradually established. She expanded into north Africa, Spain, Sardinia, Siciily pp322-5 225 BC central Italy was faced with a Celtic invasion.. 218 when Italy was unexpectedly invaded from the north by a Carthaginian army led by Hannibal.. been energetically building a new empire in Spain..One of Rome's oldest allies, the city of Massilia [Marseilles], had clearly become concerned.. Hanibal had a tutor from Sparta.. hostile tribes harassing his men (and the elephants they brought with them) as they passed. Perhaps a third of his army was lost on the way.. Po plain, where the Celts rallied to Hannibal as their liberator.. Celts and Spaniards who were holding Hannibal's centre.. victory at Cannae now allowed Hannibal to consolidate his position in southern Italy.. Scipio.. victory at Ilipa.. war to Africa.. forced the Carthaginians to recall Hannibal.. Rome inherited her empire in Spain. In Sicily, Syracuse, who had joined the Carthaginians, had been taken and sacked by Romans in 212. The most notable casualty was the celebrated scientist Archimedes, whose ingenious war machines had delayed the city's capture p326-7 In 215 Hannibal had made an alliance with Philip V of Macedon. Rome had sent a small fleet to Greece but primarily used the Aetolian League (see p297), traditionally hostile to Macedon, to contain him.. When in 192, Antiochus agreed to support the Aetolian League and crossed with a small army to the Greek mainland, the Romans reacted vigorously. In 191 at Thermopylae he was easily defeated p330 In Italy the confiscation of land allowed the surplus population of Rome to be settled away from the city so that social tensions could be contained. In so far as the only obligation that Rome expected from her allies was the provision of men for war, her continuing supremacy over them also depended on frequent campaigns [Wm Harris, War&Imp_Repub_Rom 1979] p339 For the poorer citizen access to cheap grain was essential and Gaius [Gracchus] stabilized corn prices by instituting a system of bulk buying and storage for sale at a fixed price (thus protecting the poor from variations in the weather and the exploitation of speculators) p341 In 113 news came of two Germanic tribes, the Cimbri and Tuetones, who had embarked on a long and seemingly undirected migration from central Europe to France which intruded from time to time on Roman territory. Each time they met a Roman army they defeated it.. Marius' problem was the settlement of his troops. Those without land to return to could not simply be disbanded.. bitterly opposed by the senate.. never got their land.. exile, now a somewhat discredited figure. Once again violence had infiltrated the political system p347 Pompey's career had already shown that he would not be easy to control, but it was equally clear that he was one of the most able men in the state, energetic, ruthless when he needed to be, and with fine administrative skills.. massive uprising of slaves led by the Thracian gladiator Spartacus.. 70,000-strong force of slaves.. grisly row of 6,000 crucified slaves lining the road from Rome to Capua where the uprising had begun p359 republican by temprament, a believer in the ancient liberties of Rome, but had to admit, even in De Republica, that the breakdown of orer required a strongman to take control. (Cicero had Pompey in mind.) Cicero himself connot have been easy to live with. He could be fussy, self-pitying, and ambivalent in his loyalties. p363 Caesar had had to borrow a legion from Popmey's forces to replace it as well as to recruit two more from Cisalpine Gaul. Unrest among tribes in the north of Gaul had continued into 53 and then in 52 there had been a much more formidable revolt which had covered much of central and south-western Gaul. It had been led by Vercingetorix of the Averni, the first Celtic leader able to transcend tribal loyalties and unite the Celts in defence of their freedom p365 On 1 January 49 Caesar suggested in a letter to the senate that both he and Pompey should lay down their commands.. On 10 January 49 he crossed a small river, the Rubicon, which markd the boundary of Cisalpine Gaul within which hw could exercise imperium and the rest of Italy where he could no. He had, in effect, decalred war on the Republic p367 Pompey must have hoped for some support. However as he steped ashore he was murdered on the orders of the Egyptian authorities, who understood that Caesar was now the man to please.. jointly by a 21-year-old queen, Cleopatra, and her brother, the 15-year-old Ptolemy XII.. She was the first Hellenistic ruler of Egypt to have learnt the language (she knew nine altogether) and to have participated in Egyptian religious festivals p369 fact that he had won a civil war against fellow citizens was glossed over by allocating each triumph to a victory over foreigners, the Gauls, the Egyptians, Pharnaces, and king Juba of Numidia.. acquiring the aura of a Hellenistic monarch.. fair settlement of debts had been decreed in 48.. 80,000 citizens were persuaded to emigrate.. Citizenship was also granted to loyal provincial communities.. calendar.. was replaced on the advice of an Alexandrian astronomer, Sosigenes, by one of 365 days with one extra day added every four years. (This calendar lasted until it required further reform in the sixteenth century.).. increasing absolutist p371 Caesar accepted the idea of a temple dedicated to him and the appointment of Mark Antony as his flamen or priest. More provocative to the average Roman were the accumulation of honours and trapping which hinted of kingship. Here Caesar's behaviour was deeply ambiguous.. committed republicans such as Cassius and Brutus, the leaders, former supported of Pompey whom Caesar had forgiven, and others with more personal resentments. The secret was well kept. Caesar was due to attend a meeting of the senate in a great hall adjoining Pompey's theatre. One of the conspirators was delegated to throw himself at Caesar's feet with a petition, pulling Caesar's toga downwards so he could not defend himself. The others were then to stab him p372 Cicero emerged to preside over the reconciliation. However, when it was discovered that Caesar had left his gardens to the city and a sum of mony to each of its citizens, popular fury against the murderers grew and Brutus and Cassius were forced to leave Rome.. To his dismay Antony found that Caesar had adopted his 18-year-old nephew, Octavian.. Antony was indeed defeated in Cisalpine Gaul but both counsuls were killed and Octavian found himself commander of an army of eight legions. These he refused to give up and marched to Rome to demand and receive a consulship from the humiliated senate. He was aged 19.. November 43 they set up a triumvirate.. liquidation of the Republic was ratified by a meeting of the conscilium.. seize land in Italy to settle their large armies. A death list of 300 senators and 2,000 equestrians was drawn up. There was only one name of consular rank, Cicero. He hesitated over his escape and was caught in his litter and beheaded p374-5 murdering her younger brother and placing the 4-year-old Caesarion as co-ruler.. Antony, who, in contrast to the austere Caesar, had a weakness for opulence, succumbed. He spent the winter of 41 tp 40 with Cleopatra in Alexandria and she bore him twins.. In 39 Parthian forces invaded Syria and even entered Jerusalem. They were repulsed. Antony, who had sent Octavia home when she became pregnant and renewed his relationship with Cleopatra, now planned a major invasion of Partha.. Caesarion was declared the true heir of Caesar (an obvious affront to Octavian) and, with his mother, joint ruler of Egypt and Cyprus.. easy for Octavian to damn him as the plaything of a powerful woman who was corrupting Roman virtues with the decadence of the east.. Antony stabbed himself, while Cleopatra had herself bitten by an asp. Caesarion was later murdered. Egypt, the last of the great Hellenistic kingdoms, was now in the hands of Rome p385 Augustus' formal powers were rooted in republican precendent and there was the knowledge that they had been granted freely to him by the senate and the people of Rome. In combination and duration they extended beyond anything known in the Republic.. Wahtever the realities of his power, Augustus remained scrupulous in his dealings with senators.. An exception was Egypt.. personal conquet pp409-12 Stoic could be stern and unbending. The importance of Seneca is that he humanized.. power under Nero.. Gradually, however, Nero's activities became more sinister. In 59, eggend on by his mistress, Poppea, he decided to murder his mother.. immense psychological burden. Soon a reign of terror began.. Most formidable of all was a Jewish revolt, set of in 66 by the clumsy behaviour of a Greek governor, appointed under the influence of Poppea. A million died in the following years as it was suppressed.. With Nero fied the last of the Julio-Claudians.. outside the traditional noble families of Rome and make his way to power through sheer merit. Vespasian was not to disappoint. He was the first emperor since Augustus to maintain good relationships with those varied constituencies, the senate, the army, and the people of Rome. Although severe in tone and cautious with his spending, he also had a sound awareness of what the empire needed - the definition of boundaries, stable provincial government, and a widening of citizenship so that its subjects could be progressively drawn into loyalty. Nero's reign and the disruption of the year 69 had left the empire unsettled p416 He was assidious in intervening in the affairs of cities, settling disputes and telling them how to arrange their affairs.. Farmers could apply for loans from the imperial treasury at 5 percent interest (instead of the usual 12 per cent). The interest was then placed in a special account and used to pay for grain rations for the children of the poor. Trajan also proved to be the last great conqueror of the Roman empire p419 Hadrian is remembered above all as a builder.. Hadrian's Wall crossing northern Britain from seas to sea.. One consequence of Hadrian's continuous travels was that imperial decisionmaking was considered independently of the senate in Rome.. However, by Hadrian's reign it is clear that the emperor's decisions on matters brought to him directly were now also considered to have the force of law. Such decisions were known as rescripts and some of Hadrian's are quoted in Justinian's great Digest of Roman law p422-3 By the time Jerusalem was stormed by Titus in 70 the Romans may have inflicted a million casualties. Those insurgents who were captured alive were distributed as victims to the amphitheatres of the east.. second Jewish revolt in 132-5 was crushed with equal brutality.. earlier traditions of ruthlessness were not dead.. megalomaniac behaviour of Caligula and Nero against their subjects and the lives of Tiberius and Domitian also ended in reigns or terror. Non-citizens had no protection against the arbitrary decisions of magistrates and there is evidence that governors would order executions to appease local pressure groups (the trial and crucifixion of Jesus on the authority of Pontius Pilate can be viewed in this context) or simply to clear overcrowded gaols p463-4 For Edward Gibbon this represented the moment when the human race was more prosperous and contented than at any other time in history, and it was in Antoninius' reign that Aelius Aristides delivered his famous panegyric of Roman rule.. emergence of new, often expansionst, tribal groups. In the Black Seas area the Goths appear in the early third century.. Saratians, nomadic peoples of Asiatic origin, who had established themselves on the Hungarian plain.. Burgundians, emerged on the Elbe to thewest of the Vistula about the smae time as the home of the Oksywie culture became deserted. Similarly other Germanic tribes were drawn together as a confederation known as the Alamanni ('all men'), first attested in 213. The Franks emerged slightly later long the lower Rhine while the Saxons appear along the coast of the North Sea p477 In 293 Diocletian did this in characteristic fashion by sweeping away all vestiges of local currencies and replacing the devalued coins by a currency based on pure gold coins of 5.20 grams in weight with pure silver coins for lower denominations.. The Edict of Prices of 301 is a fascinating document. In it are listed the proposed maximum prices for a vast range of goods and the highest wages each type of craftsman and labourer should receive [Reagan citied this as first failure of price controls] p484 Jesus was brought up in Galilee, a northern region of Palestine. Galilee was governed not by the Romans but by a series of client kings, first, at the time of Jesus' birth around 5BC, Herod and then his son Herod Antipas p485 At one extreme the Sadducees, a wealthy and aristocratic group, with conservative religious and social ideas, were prepared to tolerate Roman rule as offering the best chance of their survival as an elite. They dominated the councils of Jerusalem. At the other extreme, there were those who were actually prepared to countenance armed rebellion against the Romans. In Jesus' time they were not a coordinated group but they were to come together as 'the Zealots' to launch the great Jewish revolt against Rome in AD 66. In between these extremes other sects such as the Pharisees concentrated on maintaining their religious principles intact without offering any open opposition to Roman rule p486-7 Its converts were mainly among Greek-speaking Jews.. synagogues in these large cosmopolitan cities traditionally attracted gentiles.. Jerusalem leaders, Peter and James, wedded to their Jewish background, insisted that Jesus was only for those who were cirumcised and who obeyed Jewish dietary laws.. Paul, a Greek-speaking Jew from Tarsus in Cilicia and a citizen of the empire.. Paul insisted that uncircumcised gentiles could become Christians and he argued his case against restrictive attitudes of the Jerusalem community with vigour. He only got his way when he agreed that his gentile churches would collect money for the church in Jerusalem. There followed broad agreement that the Jerusalem leaders would continue to preach to Jews while Paul would be leader of the mission to the gentiles.. Paul later told the Galatian Christians of a public row he had had with Peter in Antioch. Peter had been prepared at first to eat with gentiles but when joined by fellow Jewish Christians from Jerusalem withdrew p493 no supreme bishop, although those of larger cities, Jerusalem (in very early days), Antioch, Ephesus and Alexandria, claimed some form of pre-eminence in their region. In the second century these cities were affronted when Victor, bishop of Rome, tried unsuccessfully to impose the date of Easter p494 Middle Platonism began to permeate the writings of Christians p495 Logos was a concept developed by Greek philosophers (Stoics as well as Platonists) to describe the force of reason which, they argued, had come into being as part of creation. (It is often translated, rather unhelpfully, as 'the Word'.) Logos existed in human beings as the intellectual power with which they were able to understand the divine world so, in this sence, logos overlapped both the physical world and the divine. Hrist could be portrayed as logos created by God in human form and sent by him into the world to act as an intermediary between god and man p496 Accounts of trials show that it was not so much what Christians believed that worried local governors as their refusal to honour traditional gods p512 Some extremists, such as the Egyptian Hierakas, even doubted that married couples who had enjoyed the sexual act would be admitted to heaven #@# Phoenicians & West Aubet trTurton Cambridge ISBN 0 521 41141 6 p120 kings of Tyre and Byblos were advised, as has already been indicated, by a Council of Elders, or representatives of the most renowned and powerful families in the city, whose power probably lay in their merchantile interest. As far as we an tell from the correspondence of the kings of Tyre and Bublos with the pharaohs of El Amarna, this institution goes back at least to the middle of the second millenium BC p121 Those who belonged to the Council of Elders or Council of State in each of the Phoenician cities were called spt in Phoenician, equivalent ot the Akkadian sapitum and the the Hebrew sophet. In Israel, for example, these suffettes or 'judges' governed the territory in exceptional circumstances in the years 1200-1030 BC. There, they were leaders of clans and tribes, magistrates by divine right, who would be the forerunners of the monarchy. The best-known of the judges of Israel was Saul p126 With respect to the ancient Canaanite religion, the Phoenician religion of the Iron AGe presupposes an ideological break, which implies profound religious, ideological and socio-political changes at the end of the second millennium.. Nevertheless, the most important novelty os the appearance of human sacrifice, unknown, apparently, in the second millenium, and the birth of 'national' gods with no known predecents, like Melqart, Eshmun, and Reshef.. [human sacrifice] also known by the biblical name of 'Moloch sacrifice', would develop in a special way in the Phoenician enclaves in the west, where it appears linked with fertility rites and the monarchy. In Phoenicia, human sacrifice was very sporadic and disappeared in the middle of the first millenium p127 In the city of Tyre, by contrast, the chief divinity was masculine: Melqart, the protector of the city, symbol of the monarchic institution and founder of colonies. Asarte, Baal Shamem and Baal Hammon play a supporting part.. testimony of Herodotus [2:43-44].. saw the temple in Tyre with his own eyes and describes it flanked by the two famous columns of gold and emerald and, inside it, the tomb of the god. Some authors have hinted at a direct link between the two pillars and the Pillars of Hercules [Gibraltar] at the other end of the Phoenician world, in the city of Gadir [Cadiz] (Arrianus 2:17,2-4) p128 immolation of the god through ritual cremation. The intention was, logically, to revive him and make him immortal by virtue of fire. The belief in resurrection by faire, already known in Ugaritic myths, explains the fact that Melqart is also called 'fire of heaven'.. agricultural nature of Melqart, a god who dies and is reborn each year in accordance with natural cycles, was ecliped by his great maritime prowess p129 of Melqart is the history and fate of Tyre and her daughters, the western colonies. In Hannibal's famous oath of 215 BC, the Tyrian pantheon is still mentioned, consisting of Heracles (Melqart) and Asarte, as well as Iolaos or Eshmun, all of them symbols of the monarchy. In the history of Cyprus, Melqart-Eshmun, that is, the royal family of Tyre, appear as founders of the kingdom of Kition. In the fifth century BC, Kition is still minting coins with the efficgy of Melqart. When Alexander the Great beseiged Tyre, the Macedonian, who claime dto be descended from Heracles, expressed a wish to offer a sacrifice in the temple of Melqart for ends that were clearly political (Arrianus 2:15,7-16,7). The Tyrians were categorically opposed to this, cosidering the place to be sacred. Melqart was the symbol of their autonomy and independence, but above all he was the symbol of their national p130 The most ancient Tyrian foundations in the Mediterranean appear to be linked to a temple which, in most cases, was dedicated to Melqart. In fact, Tyrian expansion tot he west coincided with the gradual introduction of the worship of Melqart in Cyprus, Thasos, Malta.. In Gadir and Carthage, the figure of Melqart finds its way even into the story of the foundation p168 famous refernce by the Roman historian Velleius Paterculus (Hist_Rome 1:2,1-3), which placed the founding of Gadir [Utica] eighty years after the Trojan War, that is around the year 1104 or 1103 BC p273 The year 550 BC is usually considered to be the moment of transition from the Phoenician to the Punic phase in the west.. In the Iberian peninsula, the Punic period was accompanied by the very first appearance of traces of a cult and sanctuaries dedicated to Tanit, the principal deity of the Carthaginian pantheon, and by the presence of sober, functional pottery replacing the classic Phoenician red-burnished tableware. From the sixth century onwards, the first great urban centres like Ibiza appear; in them, the official religion of Carthage wasimposed and the relatively peaceful trade of the eighth to seventh centuries gave way to a militarist policy that was to accompany the history of the west until Romanization. The old Phoenician settelements along the Mediterranean coast of Andalusia were abandoned, or were reorganized but always after a gap or generalized break pp274-5 crisis of the Phoenician diaspora in the far west..fall of Typre to Nebuchadnezzar after thirteen years of siege (586-573 BC).. fall of Assyrian empire in 612 BC into the hands of the Medes and Babylonians. THe siege of Tyre came later and merely delivered the coup de grace to an economic situation that made the presence of her commercial agents on the Straits of Gibraltar untenable.. There is no doubt that the Phoenicians generated wealth and prompted profound transformations within the indigenous societies of Andalusia and the Mediterranean seabord p282 Gadir was a merchantine metropolis, founded in response to the resources of Lower Andalusia - Tartessos - with which it established direct trade.. In effect, Gadir did not control the Tartessian hinterland since that was already occupied by a developed population. For that reason, the only traces we know of Phoenician defensive systems or fortifications are limited to the city of Gadir itself p283 In Carthage, rather than of a merchantile emporium, we must speak of an aristocratic colony, which very soon attained urban status and which, through its particularly puritanical and conservative civico-religious institutions, was to monopolize the economic and idological activity of vast territories in the west #@# Podhoretz, Prophets, Free Press, 2002 ISBN 0-7432-1927-9 p2 enemy they knew as idolatry.. keeps coming back under different names and in mutated forms p7 But the most extreme example - or what seems to me the reductio ad_absurdum of this kind of textual analysis - the Book of Obadiah, the shortest in the Hebrew Bible, consisting wholly of a single chapter of only twenty-one verses represent either six or eight unrelated fragments that may have originated with as many different prophets p11 King James Version comes closest in syntax, cadence, locution, and spirit to the original Hebrew.. traslates Hebrew idioms in such a way that they seem entirely native to English p43 We have already seen that idolatry is not yet prohibited among nations other than Israel. And from the classical prophetic literature, we will learn that only at the End of Days will all these nations finally smash their idols and bow down to the one true God p56-60 loose confederation of tribes or clans.. Samuel is a kind of circuit judge.. first king, Saul, whom Samuel himself is instructed by God to seek out and annoint.. reluctantly, since he has already resisted the clamor of the people for a king p77 goal is not to aggrandize their own power but to establish the rule of God - first within Israel itself, and then.. among other peoples p103 Elijah will come to be featured as one of the greatest heroes of the past with an even more important role to play in the future as the herald of the Mesiah.. transported to heaven in a flaming chariot p113 prophetic guilds - as well as their anonymous masters - have by now degenerated p125 Nor does His covenant with Israel entail God's indifference to the moral behavior of other peoples.. seven laws of Noah (prohibitions against murder robbery, adultery, etc).. all the peoples who live before Abraham p129 everything that has been destroyed will be rebuilt.. n. "Sheol was to the Hebrews the abode of the dead. Believed to be located in the depths of the earth, it is a simile for inaccessibility" p159 Feodor Dostoevsky, warned (prophetically sensing the rise of totalitarianism in the next century, as surely as Amos and Hosea experienced intimations of the rise of Assyria in their own day), "everything" would become possible. Nor could even many who agreed with Nietzsche accompany him to his more optimistic conclusion that, liberated from the shackles of religion, mankind could now move to a stage "beyond good and evil" p178 Jon D Levenson.. exegetes of the Middle Ages.. "if the real author is God, it is of no account which human vessel He inspired with any given verse" p183 [Isaiah] some of the greatest poetry ever written in any language p187 angry lament over the expropriations of small landholdings by the owners of large estates.. moral evil abetted by judicial corruption p190 nature worship, one of the forms of idolatry prevalent in the North in those days p213 [Habakkuk] tells the prophet that He is about to unleash the Chaldeans p244 Ezekiel is the only prophet God addresses as "ben-adam," a term that literally means "son of man" p261 It is the same in Babylon, where, Kaufmann passionately argues, the exiles are nothing short of heroic in maintaining their faith under conditions that radically challenge it, and in resisting the pressures to worship strange gods. (They even, he rightly observes, manage to make converts among the Baylonians.) p267 Cyrus.. even granting them a subsidy with which to rebuild their Temple p276 Israel, then, is not to be merely a "mediator of blessings": it is to be the teacher of God's law p280 (In fact, the rudiments of the new institution of the synagogue - which will become the substitute for a temple after the second one is destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE - are evidenlty already present in Babylon in the days of Second Isaiah.) p286 true universalism of the Second Isaiah.. reassurance thisprophet gives to the converts made in Babylonia who are worried about the status they will have when they arrive in Jerusalem p288 Samaritans.. descendants of the Assyrians snet to colonize the Northern Kingdom.. adopted the religionof Israel, and were now practising it.. manner of observance was looked upon as improper by the returnees p309 cessation of classical prophesy in the mid-fifth century BCE (just when - in another touch of mystery? - Socrates and Plato and Aristotle and many other giants of Greek culture are becoming prominent in Athens) p315 keep their people faithful to God because they believed with all their hearts and all their souls that He Had, out of inscrutable love, chosen the children of Israel as the instrument through which His Law would be revealed and ultimately accepted by every other peopel as well... Leo Strauss was obviously right when he located the roots of Western civilization in two ancient cities: Jerusalem and Athens.. Maimonides set out to reconcile the teachings of Judaism with those of Aristotle; then in the next century St Thomas Aquinas dedicated himself to the same gigantic project as it applied to Christianity p326 only God can bring about the messianic era. Not believing in God, and therefore oblivious of that essential truth, revolutionaries of the modern era from Robespierre to Lenin, from Mao to Pol Pot, who set out to realize the utopian visions of a world of perfect justice, harmony, brotherhood, felt justified in constructing totalitarian regimes and murdering as many millions as they thought it would take to createsuch a world.. dream of peace.. disarmers and treaty makers of the 1920s.. had the opposite effect p334 The triggering event was the infamous decree of 167 BCE issued by Antiochus, a Seleucid monarch and a great devotee of Greek culture. Under its provisions, anyone caught with a copy of the Torah or circumcising a baby boy would be executed (and many were, including several of the leading rabbinical sages of the period). Antiochus then followed up this ruthless policy of Hellenization by rededicating the Temple in Jerusalem to Zeus and offering sacrifices to him there. "At this point," Moorer comments, "the extension of divine retribution beyond the tomb came as a necessary corollary to the idea of God's justice and the assurance of his faithfulness in fulfilling his promise to the righteous" p337 A pious Jew offers thanks for the rising of the sun and its setting; for every morsel of food he eats; and even - in a regulation that is at once comical and impressive in its robust and earthy attitude toward life - for the successful conclusion of the lowliest bodily functions p350-1 delegitimize these traditional attitudes and ideas altogether. Students and professors who refused to toe the line were punished by suspension or forced to undergo "sensitivity training".. "reeducation camps".. "Incorrect" points of view on these matters were stigmatized as "hate speech".. religious need not apply.. environmentalism, the antinomian strain grew out of the counterculture's assault on technology with its contempt for the workings of man. To this it appended a kind of nature worship that even involved an attack on "specieism" or the assumption that human beings were superior to animals p353 Paganism often (always?) involved the worship of nature.. sanctioned sexual promiscuity.. involved the readiness to sacrifice one's own children for one's own good.. "Home-Alone America" p357 bowing down to the work of their own hands, what they were worshiping was themselves; and in worshiping themselves, in trusting in themselves as though they were gods, they not only failed to acquire superhuman status, but htey lost even such powers as were granted to human beings, becoming as dead to the world as the idols they constructed.. idolatry amounted to self-deification, the delusion.. In the Ten Commandments, the primary violation of the law is idolatry.. cult of self.. delusion that we humans are capable of creating a perfect world - a delusion out of which in the past century alone mountains of corpses have been amassed #@# Basic Judaism Steinberg 1947..75 Harvest 0-15-61069801 p5 Nathan and Elijah who rebuked kings for deeds of oppression. Amos.. universality of God.. Hosea.. God inexhaustible in mercy.. Isaiah who espied design in history.. universal peace and equity p12 Hilel, a Palestinian sage.. "That which is hurtful to thee do not to thy neighbor. This is the whole doctrine. The rest is commentary.".. Rabbi Akiba.. "great principle" of Judaism in the commandment laid down in Leviticus" Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" p35 Jewish religion is highly intellectualistic in the sence that it places understandign among its supreme purposes, and in the further sense that it believes in knowledge as the key to understanding. But neither knowledge nor understanding is atainable without inquiry, debate, and the right to make up one's own mind. By its nature, then, Judaism is averse to formal creeds which of necessity limit and restrain thought.. For all its heavy intellectualism it sets morality above logic, the pursuit of justice and mercy over the possession of the correct idea p40 Similarly the eleventh century neo-Platonist, Solomon ibn Gabriol, speaks of God as "the mystery in which our thoughts weary themselves to find a stay." Maimonides a century later insists that God so far transcends human comprehension that all positive descriptions of Him are inappropriate p42 Heathendom assumed a deity in and for each object: the river, the tree, the sun; in and for each faculty and function:fertility, memory, the artisan's skill. So it tore reality to shreds, and then, to confound confusion, assumed that each spirit had no other role except to look after its own. Under this construction there was no order, either logical or moral, to things p48 He helps men from Himself by the inflow of His spirit into their hearts, either in response to prayer or through mystical communion or in the course of the normal respiration of the soul. Invading them, He renders them strong with a strength they did not possess heretofore, sharpsighted with an unusual insight, and compassionate with mercy they have not otherwise known p49 Salvation is man's victory over his limitations: ignorance, for instance, or insensitivity; it is his conquest of sinfulness, of the evils resident within him, such as pride, selfishness, hate, lust, cynicism, the deliberate rejection of goodness and truth p54 Than an evil may be the result of some prior sin of the individual on whom it is visited.. That it may represent the expiation of the wrong-doing not of an individual but of his community; that if a man avails himself of the advantages afforded him by his society, he must be prepared to take responsibility for its iniquities. That it is necessary so that man may be a moral being. For how, if there were no evil, could man choose the good?.. That it supplies men with a touchstone on which they may test the stuff of which they are made, an adversary against whom to contend and so grow strong; a contest without which there could be no victory pp62-3 This is the good, according to the formulas of the Tradition: To do the will of God.. To reveal His glory.. To hallow His name.. To imitate Him.. To advance God's kingdom p66 Maimonides asserted that the climax of the religious life and the perfection of man consists in "the possession of the highest intellectual faculties and of such notions as lead to true metaphysical opinions" p67 "The bashful learneth not, the impatient teacheth not".. "Why is Torah compared to water? To teach thee that as water floweth away from the lofty and gathereth only in lowly places, so with wisdom among men" p72 By presenting marriage as a concession to human weakness, it has turned into a second-best what is, properly regarded, the loveliest and most ennobling of all human associations p100 Indeed, from the strictly traditionalist viewpoint, there is a sense in which Gentiles come by salvation more easily than Jews (though not so certainly). For a non-Jew it is required only that he conform to the "seven commandments ordained upon the sons of Noah" which are the principles of piety and morality conceived by the ancient rabbis as binding on all mankind: to refrain from (1) idolatry; (2) incest and adultery, (3) bloodshed; (4) the profanation of God's name; (5) injustice and lawlessness; (6) robbery; (7) inhumane conduct, such as cutting a limb from a living animal. What is more, Talmudic literature is studded with incidents concerning heathens who are said "to have acquired the world to come" by single acts of extraordinary kindness and integrity. Against that, it is expected of Jews for their salvation that they shall undertake to discharge as many of the six hundred and thirteen commandments of Torah as apply to them p119 Prayer to be efficacious must place God's will higher than man's and, when the two conflict, must subordinate the latter to th eformer. Always it must begin with the postulate, implied or expressed, "May it be Thy will." Always it must close with the thought, verbalized or silent, "Thy will be done" fn-p127 Historic Judaism has alway laid heavy stress on cleanliness. We have already noted its insistence on the washing of hands before the breaking of bread. The hygienic design in the dietary laws may well be another case in point. The Tradition provides further for the establishment of public ritual bath houses in every community and specifies the times and occasions at which they are to be visited. This preoccupation with cleanliness stands forth the more remarkably when it is contrasted with the attitude widespread in the Middle Ages whereunder dirt was not only acquiesced in but was sometimes regarded as a concomitant of saintliness p145 Law is an element in Judaism, lat of all, because of the intense Jewish preoccupation with ethics, and because of the historic Jewish insistence that ideals need to be put into habits and disciplines. If they be social they must be incarnated in institutions, folkways, and law. Otherwise, their cogency and content will evaporate, and they woll be left in the end empty vessels p157 Once all rabbis bowed to the authority of the supreme rabbinical court, the Sanhedrin. When that body dissolved - sometime in the fifth century - a portion of its power was conferred by unspoken consent upon the presidents and senates of two great Talmudical academies in Baylonia. In the eleventh century, these too ceased to be effective forces. Thereafter no rabbi has owed obedience to any other pp160-1 As to the form of the hereafter, of Paradise or Heaven or Eden where righteousness is said to be rewarded, of the Hell or Sheol or Gehinnom where wickedness is punished - on this, as on so many other articles of belief, individual Jews have at all times put private interpretations. Indeed it is questionable whether any other tenet of Judaism has been more divergently construed.. On some day to come, the bodies of the dead of all time will arise from their graves, souls will be summoned from the places an states to which they have been committed, and both will be reunited as during their existence on earth. Then on every human being, body and soul together, and in the presence of all the multitudes of all generations, God will pronounce judgement whether of bliss or damantion p162-3 modernists. As they read the Bible, it most ancient portions have only this to say about an afterlife: that the souls of the dead are consigned to a shadowy underworld called Sheol where they continue in a vague and only partly conscious existence.. Only in the days of the Second Temple did these doctrines emerge, partly as a normal unfolding of potentialities latent in Judaism; partly in a response to the stimulation of Zoroastrianism with its teachings concerning Resurrection and the Last Judgement, and of Hellenism with its highly developed notion of immortality. On the basis of this historical construction, some few modernists draw the inference that neither Resurrection not Immortality is integral to the Jewish religion.. retain faith in the deathlessness of man's spirit not only in its naturalistic connotations but in its beyond-this-life significance as well. They are sparing of guesses as to what the state of immortality may be like but firm in the conviction that in some fashion the human personality outlives its corporeal housing p165 God's Kingdom is therefore more than a promise. Obscured and broken though it be, latent rather than overt, it is also an ever-present actuality. Everything in the world subserving goodness is of its dominion. Everyone ministering to the right is, whether knowingly or not, its citizen.. Every formal service closes with a twofold prayer, in the first of which the worshipper offers obeisance to the Kingdom, in the second of which he prays for its speedy coming in its completeness #@# Gospel acc Moses, Athol Dickson ISBN 0-7394-3550-7 brazospress.com [Protestant invited to Jewish Bible study] p21 asking questions is a way to demonstrate humility, because inherent in the question is the assumption that I do not have the answer p25 third explanation for divine silence: I am probably unable to safely handle some of the answers p28 The Lord wants to communicate with me as badly as I want to communicate with him p33 Pure, all powerful, unchanging, all-knowing and ever-present p43 If G-d should ever decide to change the rules in the middle of this hand he has dealt, the entire game would be off p46 suspended strict justice.. withdrawn, for our protection p55 G-d exists outside of time.. can have it both ways p73 paradoxes of Scripture to ease me back toward the middle between the truths.. love G-d _and my neighbor. Faith _and works are both important. Justice _and mercy are required. My action are somehow free _and predestined. G-d is somehow everywhere _and uniquely here.. p75 layer behind layer of truth.. holding two truths in sight simultaneously.. looking past the paradox to focus on the truth.. p76 Blind faith is based on something much too small: me.. true faith is open to new facts, even when they threaten to change my beliefs p108 "Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly father is perfect" [Matthew 5:48 & Leviticus 11:45] p126 human choice and not about inherited [orig sin] p143 felt humble gratitude for the undeserved loan of the offering and returned it in a spirit of thankfulness p150 "The ritual and ceremonial commandments will be abolished in the future that is to be" Niddah 61b p174 study, prayer, obedience to mitzvot and repentant fasting- comes only _after forgiveness has already been received.. offering up obedience to balance disobedience p176 "You do not delight in sacrifice.. broken and contrite heart" Psalm 51:16-17 p255 "G-d's gifts and his call are irrevocable" Romans 11:29 .. does not change and neither does his arrangement with Israel #@# GOD 101 Rabbi Terry Bookman ISBN 0-399-526258-7 2000 betham-miami.org PenguinPutnam.com [cit Jewish scripture: Tanakh, Jewish Publication Society, Phila 1985] p15 anthropocentric systems are bound to fail.. self-interest will tell us that we are exempt from following the rules of conscience p19 graven images.. God is without definition.. p24-25 Ten Commandments we read that the sins.. up to the third or fourth generation.. repeating patterns they learned as children p31 balance of good and bad.. incapable of knowing the one without experiencing the other p35 compelled to cause us to suffer.. return to our relationship with the Holy One p38 miracles have a great deal to do with perception.. p40 voice within.. quiet all distractions.. meditation p43 God seeks us. We call this "grace" p47 Finite cannot assume the Infinite.. Mystery p53 Judaism likes to see things as dialectic.. tension of the middle [ie divine truth appears contradictory] p66 to stay God-conscious is also work.. discipline and repeated effort p71 hacham uses her brain, and the navi his heart, then the path of the hasid is through the hands and feet p72 We are professional mitzvah doers p75 prayer is l'hitpallel.. whisper, or say out loud.. conversation we have within ourselves p77 Prayer is also a conversation we have with a community of others, which we call "minyan" p79 not knowing what the words mean can often be an enhancement to true prayer.. turn off left-brain rational p80 Jewish tradition calls for both keva/fixed prayers.. and kavanah/intentionaility and spontaneity. It demands both p82 midnight..between time, almost unworldly p86 God has to be roused by our petitions, but that we have the power to do so p88 ego-centered..evil..distractions.. itch just when you are really.. invite the barriers to be part.. capitalize on the energy.. laugh at them.. Adon Olam prayer, "Into your hands, I place my spirit. I will not be afraid" p90 [meditation] block left-brain rational thinking so as to allow the mind to quiet itself.. in through the nose and out through the mouth.. phrase that can elevate.. God names are good for this p95 challenged to say a hundred blessings ever day.. pray three times a day p100 perceptive mechanisms point us outward.. have to see with our hearts p102 bending your will to that of the group can be very beneficial, especially in the realm of pryaer p113 go wherever the truth will lead me.. Even dissenting minority opinions were preserved p121 Studying with others forces us to listen, to open ourselves up to the truth of what the other is saying, to wait our turn, to weigh our words p131 behalf of others.. individual does not deem them to be such usually means that he or she is not God-focused p134 Jewish tradition that the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed because of senceless hatred.. just as easy to be nice as it is to be nasty and it feels so much better.. never to go to bed angry at another p136 When people are unhappy with their work, it is often because that work does not allow them to fulfill their true mission.. p138 Maimonides.. tzedakah.. anonymous giving to be at a higher level.. putting someone to work was actually the highest.. from the perspective of the recipient.. not the giver p153 Anytime we extend ourselves.. without concern for ourselves.. is a spiritual act.. taste of the infinite.. recognize the sacredness of all life p154 Relationships challenge our humanness.. deny ourselves.. trust, accept limits, make sacrifices, and live by our deeds and not just by our words.. p155 Each of us, even that annoying guy at work, has a spark of the divine within.. "..whoever destroys even one soul is regarded by the Torah as if s/he had destroyed an entire world; and whoever saves a soul, is regarded as if s/he had saved an eniter world" (Mishna Sanhedrin) p156 "love your neighbor as yourself.." Leviticus 19:19 p157 To covet is to dehumanize.. blinds us to the totality p158 Patience is about acceptance.. humility.. pay attention.. "thou shalt not curse the deaf, not put a stumbling block in front of the blind" [Leviticus 19:14].. excercise of power.. [those who trust us] p160 full humanity of the other..courtesies p161 clear boundaries.. not always easy.. Differing expectations can destroy the fabric of what the relationship ought to be about. p162 Boundary violations are dehumanizing..create confusion p163 stop blaming.. still feel [wrongly] that responsibility equals fault.. Responsibility begins, then, with the willingness to look at the possibility that I was a cause in the matter p164 "For sins against God the Day of Atonement atones. But for sins against another, the Day of Atonement does not atone, until one seeks and asks forgiveness from the one whom he offended" I read that every year on Yom Kippur. It is an accurate summary of the Jewish theology of forgiveness. p165 If we repeat the sin..still have work to do p173 make some space for the world to exist..voluntary contraction..tzimtzum.. p174 True love.. involves a loss of freedom, a loss of autonomy, and to some extent, a loss of self p184 Our children force us to examine and reexamine all of our defenses and reasons #@# Eidelberg Judaic_Man ISBN0-391-03970-9 1996 p104 How different was Abraham, born thirty-eight centuries ago, in the year 1948 on the Hebrew calendar, the very year marking on the secular calendar, the rebirth of Israel. This first of the great scientific and philosophic minds rejected every form of idolatry, by which is meanth the belief that any physical entity, law, or process or for that matter any mental law or process, exists independenly of the Creator. I call such a belief "reification." Abraham understood then what exceedingly few people understand today (when quantum physics has excluded visualization from the compreliension of nature): not only that the Creator cannot be an object of sense-perception or of imagination, but that it is a desecration to represent Him in any form whatever. Insofar as we can know anything of HaShem - and it is only by His works - it is with the intellect and without the emotionalism that underlies religion and its surrogates, such as the worship of nature, secular humanism, or some utopian ideology. The man of Torah ridicules the emotions evoked by nature because he knows that nature has no necessary existence, that it endures solely by the Will of God. It is abhorent to Judaic man to worship any created thing, be it nature or humanity. The faith - really the certitude of Judaic man is not the result of the emotions. To the contrary, his faith abides despite his emotions, especially the emotions consequent upon twenty-five centuries of persecution, pogroms, and holocaust. If Judaism were based on the emotions the Jewish people would have perished long ago. To perfect the faculties of the Jewish people, the Torah provides a profound and comprehensive program of education involving sustained study and practice of the laws contained in the Pentateuch and explicated in the Mishna and Talmud. These are laws of life and living. They train the three primary agencies of the human soul, the emotions, volition, and intellect. Not that man's mental powers exist per se and the Torah appears afterwards to teach mankind how to live. Rather, the human faculties exist in order to make manifest the wisdom of the Torah. As will be seen later, the key objective of a Torah education is to secure the rule of the intellect over the imagination and affective agency of the soul - the desires and inclinations - the sources of reification which can hinder the Torah's world-historical goal of man, that of conquering nature. Without the Torah the intellect can provide mankind nothing worthy of abiding love and reverence. To love the creations of our own hands or minds without reference to the Creator is nothing but narcissism. Eventually, self-love turns into self-hatred. Insanity follows, and on a global scale. How different is the paradigm of Judaic man - so well-balanced, so thoroughly rational and humane.. #@# Jewish Customs, Bloch, Ktav 1980 p309 Talmud attributed the stringency of Tisha B'av to the multiple disasters which occured on that day.. commemoration of the loss of the Temple p312 forbidden to cut one's hair and to wash laundry during the week [proto-lent?] of Tisha B'av.. Wine and meat, according to tradition, generate lingering joy. Furthermore, wine and meat were part of the Temple's sacrificial rituals, which came to an end withthe loss of the Sanctuary. It was therefore considered proper to abstain from them close to the fast [lent as prep for fast].. There are five pleasurable acts which are prohibited on Tisha B'av: eating, washing, annointing, wearing if leather shoes, and marital intercourse #@# Jacobs, Holy Living: saints & saintliness in Judaism ISBN 0-87668-822-9 Aronson 1990 NJ p125 The whole question of intercession at the graves of the saints exercised the minds of the traditional halakhists. The main discussion centers on two talmudic passages. In one (Sotah 34b), it is said that Caleb prostrated himself on the graves of the patriarchs and said to them, "My fathers, pray on my behalf that I may be delivered from the plot of spies." In the other passages (Taamit 47a), it is said that on days of fasting people go out to the graves to ask the dead to pray on their behalf. Against this is the orohibition of necromancy (Deuteronomy 18:11). The general line adopted by the majority of halkhists is that since the saints are asked only to pray on behalf of the supplicants, the question of necromancy does not arise. [cit Ency Jud v7 p247] The Zohar (III,71a-71b), in fact, goes so far as to say that "inquiring of the dead" does not apply to the saints, since they are still alive #@# Vox Graeca Guide Pronunc Classical Greek Wm Sydney Allen Cambrigde 3ed ISBN 0 521 33367 9 p67 On Indo-Greek coins of the 2 B.C. u is represented by i (e.g. Dianisiyasa - Diovusiou); but this does not necessarily mean that Greek [U"] had by then become [i] as in the modern language; it indicates only that Indo-Aryan had no rounded front vowe, and so rendered it by the equivalent unrounded vowel. This conclusion is also supported by the Latin evidence; in early borrowings and transcriptions from Greek, Latin speakers wrote and pronounced u (i.e. the equivalent back vowel) for Gree u, as in e.g. Ennius' 'Burrus' for Purros 9cf VL, p52); but with the spread of Greek knowledge, the Greek pronounciation and letter came to be adopted, at least in educated circles - hence eg hymnus, Olympia. Clearly, whilst the Greek sound was not [u], neither was it [i]; and there are references in Latin writer to its non-existence in native Latin words: thus eg Cicero, Or 160 and Quintilian xii 10 27 p78 Fig 3 Approximate chrnological development of Attic long vowels and 'short' diphthongs (excluding pre-vocalic position) pre-5c. 5c 4c 3c 2c 1c BC AD 1c 2c 3c Modern _ _ a a a _ _ i i _ i _ _ " u u - u i _ _ _ n e e i i , _ . ei e i i _ . w o o , _ _ ou o - u u . _ ai ai e e , au au av eu eu _ _ ev " " " oi oi - (?oi) (?o) u i 1 pp177-9 excerpts of "Summary of Recommended Pronounciations" alpha-iota As in English high alpha-ypsilon As in English how beta As English b gamma (1) As English 'hard' g (2) Before kappa, chi, gamma, mu: as n in English ink or ng in song delta As French d epsilon As in English pet epsilon-iota As in German Beet zeta [zd] As in English wisdom eta As in French tete theta As t in English top omikron-iota As in English boy, coin ypsilon As in French lune, ruse chi As c in English cat omega As in English saw #@# SEPTUAGINT LAMENTATIONS GREEK HEBREW INTERPRONOUNCIATION A /\ E Q ALEPH B H 8 VEETH F I M E /\ YIMEL D A /\ E 8 DTHALETH H EE O Y A Y OUAV Z A I N ZAEN H 8 EETH T H 8 TEETH I W D IOHDTH X A Q HAPH /\ A M E D LAMEDTH M H M MEEM N O Y N NOON S A M E X SAMEKH A I N AEN Q H FEE T S A D H TSADTHEE (CHATHIE) K W Q KOHF P H X S REEKHS X S E N KHSEN 8 A Y THAV #@# Pronounciation of Greek and Latin Edgar Sturtevant (Yale) 1920..1940 LingSocAm UP 1940 p41 s32 fig5 [i*] [e*] [ei] [e*] [a*] 500 BC i e ei n 400 BC i ei n 200 BC i,ei ei n 1 BC i,ei ei,n 400 AD i,ei,n p46s42 fig 6 [oh] [ou] [o*] [u*] [y] Before 500 BC o ou o u 500-350 o,w ou,o u After 350 w ou u #@# Warren Treadgold, Hist_Byz_State&Society, sup.org 1997 ISBN0-8047-2630-2 LC97-23492 [son of fam Salvicist?] pp xviii-xix Byzantium shaped and passed on Christian, Roman, and Greek traditions, including Christian theology, Roman law, and the Greek classics.. most powerful influence on Russia.. conservative, religious and not very materialistic.. else has matched it in maintaining a single state and society for so long, over a wide area inhabited by heterogeneous peoples p30 Noticing that the church hierarchy was a source of Christian strength, Maximin imitated it by naming pagan high priests for each province and chief priests for each city p121 Christianity, by contrast, flatly repudiated the old gods, insisting that they were not only inferior spirits but evil ones as well.. condemned fornication, adultery, homosexual acts, gladiatorial combat, abortion, and infanticide p126 Christian tradition strongly condemned killing, and had not agreed on exceptions for war, police action, or execution.. eastern position, as defined by Basil of Caesarea, was that those who killed, even in just cause, should do penance and abstain from communion for three years. The western view, professed by Saint Ambrose and Saint Augustine, drew a sharper distinction between justified and unjustified killing, and generally condoned the former p135-6 Despite the efforts of the emperors to look like absolute rulers, they were in practice nothing of the sort, and the ideology of a Christian empire would not allow them to be.. tolerate some misrule, but not the unbridled tyranny of a Nero or a Commodus. In exchange, if the emperor was a reasonably decent man, Christian public opinion helped restrain those who might want to overthrow him.. "Greek" (Hellen) was coming to mean a pagan rather than a person of Greek race or culture. Instead, the usual word for an eastern Greek had begun to be "Roman" (Rhomaios), which we moderns may render as "Byzantine" p198 [542] Jacob Baradaeus, made it his mission to revivify Monophytism within the empire.. dressed as a beggar to elude government officials.. willing to use Syriac and Coptic in the Mass p221 [571] momentary triumph of common sence, Justin's Chalcedonians and Jacob's Monophysites admitted that they held the same beliefs and merely expressed them differently p257 Justinian gave bishops jurisdiction over many civil cases in their courts, and in some cases precedence over governors p280 The economic expansion seems to help explain the increased frequency of social disorder, including religious and factional rioting. Such riots had happened before, but had seldom been so sever as they became after the mid-fifth century, when many cities had large groups of young men with leisure to devote to sports, shows, carousing, crime, and following their own fashions. The gangs of Blues and Greens, who cut their hair like Huns, wore expensive and outlandish clothes in their colors, and went about armed, were only the most conspicuous of these rowdies p307 It might well have failed against the Arabs as they were by 641. They still had all the fierceness of nomads, like the Germans, Huns, and Avars who had often defeated the empire but had been too divided and disorganized to destroy its eastern part. With the foundation of the caliphate, the Arabs had gained both cohesion and organization, like the Persians who had recently come so close to destroying the empire. This combination was fearsome, especially when joined to religious fervor, and neither the Byzantines nor anyone else had yet learned how to slow its progress, let alone how to stop it p365 silenced all iconophile opposition. His loyal strategi spread his persecution of monks through all but the border areas... Lachanodracon.. eradicated monasticism within his theme p392 Feeling against execution was so strong that emperors punished even most of their political opponents only by mutilating them p410 Western feudalism, which entirely substituted grants of land for cash payments, was a more extreme form of the same solution. Byzantium at least managed to maintain some payments to its soldiers, some control over their supplies, and fairly tight control over the highest officers p417 Yet Irene, an orphan in her mid-twenties from the shrunken provincial town of Athens, had been keen political instincts, a strong will, and some devoted allies in the bureaucracy. The precariousness of her position seems to have given her a sence of urgency p423 pope argued that a woman was ineligible to be emperor, so that Charlemagne was simply filling a vacancy p428 [809, Nicephorus] Before long the settlers turned most of Greece from a Slavonic-speaking land into a Greek-speaking one p454 [866] In frustration over Bulgaria's defection to the papacy, Photius held a council in late summer that declared Pope Nicholas deposed on the grounds that various western church practices of long standing were heretical. These included fasting on Saturdays, using unleavened bread in the Eucharist, and excluding married men from the priesthood. Photius particularly condemned the filioque p482 During the five years since the great famine, they had concentrated much more land.. edict in 934, specifying that lands purchased illegally since 928 must be returned to the sellers p493 As the empire's prestige grew, the Russian princess Olga, Igor's widow and regent for her young son Svyatoslav, visited Constantinople. She was baptized under the name of Helena by the patriarch Polyeuctus, and though she failed to convert her whole country she built up a Russia church of some size p517 In desperation he appealed to the Russian prince Vladimir of Kiev, the only neighboring ruler who seemed strong enough to make a difference. Basil's lure was the hand of his sister Anna p528 Bulgaria, the only power in the Balkans that rivaled Byzantium, had utterly collapsed. From Castoria the emperor made his way overland to Athens, where he gave thanks for his victory in the Parthenon, in its Byzantine form as a church dedicated to the Virgin p534 eighth and eleventh centuries the empire made a recovery unparalleled in history.. society became if anything more unified p538 Every emperor from Michael II to Basil II would have liked to drive the Arabs from Sicily p542 Though all the Christian client rulers held Byzantine ranks and could use Byzantine seals on their documents, such privileges were mere honors, shared by Byzantine allies like Russia p553 Iconoclasm left most ordinary priests discredited for accepting it, while the new hierarchy, largely composed of monks, was inexperienced p574 trade was regarded with suspicion.. taxed merchants strictly.. had to be enrolled in a guild p596 [1054] insisted on traditional Byzantine practices in churches throughout the empire, especially in Armenia, where unleavened bread had long been used in the Eucharist as it was in the West. Exasperated by the patriarch's intrasignance, the papal legates excommunicated him. While the emperor tried to calm the dispute, demonstrations in the capital supported the patriarch, who excommunicated the legates. These personal condemnations did not end all communion between the eastern and western churches, but they ruined the emperor's alliance with the papacy and raised intractable issues p598 strictly speaking Isaac Comnenus was the first usurper to take power in more than two centuries p600 In 1060 the Normans took Rhegium and Tarentum, reducing Byzantine Italy to little more than the coast around Bari.. new sultan's main interest was in Muslim Syria, his Turks wanted to exploit the vulnerability of Byzantine Armenia and Asia Minor p614 Sulayman began to call himself sultan of Rum.. Alexius begged for help from Venice, from disaffected Normans, and from the German emperor Henry IV, who was an enenmy of the Norman's ally Pope Gregory VII p628 Alexius left the empire stronger than he found it.. While some Crusaders and military officers certainly did want to overthrow him, cautious cooperation with them would probably have reduced that danger, and might even have let him retake most of Asia Minor before the Turks made it fully their own p637 held was a wasteland {devegetated by Turkish goats}, and their Greek population was by now accustomed to Turkish rule. So John gave priority to subduing rebels, including the Crusaders who kept Antioch in defiance p647 Pope Alexander even considered withdrawing recognition from the German.. 1166 he held a council in Constantinople that rebuffed Byzantine critics of western theology.. offered to name Alexander to the vacant patriarchate of Constantinople.. pope shrank from the drastic p663 deposition seemed shocking to westerners unfamiliar with Byzantine politics, since in the West rulers were almost never overthrown.. {vjp2:Magna Carta plagiarised Byzantine governance when Crusaders returned} pope sent his own protest [to Crusader support of the pro-papal unusurper Alexius who the Byzantines again overthrew], to no avail p666 Within a few days the Crusaders breached the sea walls and set a fire that spread through the city.. emperors beginning with Manuel Comnenus had alienated the Venetians, the rulers of Germany, and many other westerners.. p669 nomadic herders with no real homes or rulers.. Turkmen particularly infested the border.. liked booty, particularly livestock and could penetrate almost anywhere in Byzantine Anatolia p673 The Pontus, despite having a Greek majority, was almost as insubordinate as Cilicia. But its less exposed position made it more peaceful, and its trade with the East may have made it somewhat richer. During most of the period from 1075 to 1140 local magnates from the Gabras family were its virtual rulers, sometimes as Byzantine governors, sometimes as rebels allied with the Danishmendids. When Constantinople fell in April 1204, two grandsons of Andronicus I, Alexius and David Comnenus, were already conquering the Pontus with the help of their aunt, the Georgian queen Tamara. While this Alexius claimed the title of Byzantine emperor, his new realm is usually called, after its capital, the Empire of Trebizond. Soon it took over what remained of the Byzantine Crimea, which had probably become independent from Constantinople bt 1198. Alexius and David Comnenus of Trebizond also had designs on Paphlagonia, where their family had its ancestral estates and their grandfather had launched his successful revolt p680 Pronoia grants covered revenues rather than the land itself, were at this stage not heritable, and formed incidental parts of a traditional state system rather than a parallel system of essentially personal obligations p686 Monasteries began to be founded with the stipulation that they should be administered only by their abbots, subject neither to charistike nor to interference from lay founders, bishops, or even the patriarch p711 After first welcoming the Latin capture of Constantinople as a means of reuniting the Church, Pope Innocent discovered how brutal the conquest had been and condemned the sack of the city and the Crusaders' plundering of Byzantine church property p733-4 all the Latin army and Venetian fleet were away from Constantinople, making a surprise attack on the Nicene island of Daphnusia.. Latin Emperor Baldwin fled by boat. When the Venetians tried to resist, Alexius burned their commercial quarter.. pp764-71 Hesychasm, a belief among Athonite monks that by repeating a short prayer, bowing their heads, and holding their breath {actually regulating their breath according to the Philokalia Jesus Prayer} they could see the light surrounding God himself.. At the news of Andronicus' death, Turkish pirates from Saruhan attacked the Thracian coast, Dushan of Serbia advanced on Thessalonica, the Albanians around Berat revolted, and the emperor John Alexander of Bulgaria threatened to invade... Acindynus's concern was less with Hesychasm than with Palamas's insistence on the superiority of mystical knowledge to philosophical argument.. empress, whose right to rule seemed clearest, dismissed Cantacuzenus as grand domestic.. Cantacuzenus, then at Didymotichus had himself proclaimed emperor.. Dushan was obvioulsy a dangerous ally.. At Didymotichus Irene Cantacuzena held out only with help from the Bulgarians, who also wanted to prolong the civil war, and from Cantacuzenus's friend Umur of Aydin {Palamas befriended and wanted to convert the Turks}, who sailed up the Hebrus but left when the winter greww too cold for him.. [empress] personally submitted to papal authority. Since the Palamites tended to favor Cantacuzenus and to oppose westerners, the empress and her patriarch turned against Palamism.. emperor, not just of the Serbs but of the Romans. In spring 1346 Dushan had himself crowned at Scopia by the archbishop of Pech, whom he promoted to patriarch for the occasion. Alexander of Bulgaria likewise assumed the title of emperor of the Bulgarians and Greeks.. let in their leader and a thousand of his men through a tunnel.. Anna agreed that Cantacuzenus should rule for ten years as senior emperor.. councils condemned the patriarch John Calecas, rehabilitated Gregory Palamas.. opponents were widely suspected of preferring philosophy to faith and the western church to the eastern, positions few Byzantines could condone p776 Ottoman occupation of Callipolis confirmed many Byzantines' worst fears about John VI's reliance on the Turks p781-3 Venetians and Genoese made peace by agreeing to turn Tenedos into a wasteland, belonging to no one. During this miserable family war, the Ottomans occupied even more of the central Balkans, which had become a welter of Serbian, Bulgarian and Albanian fiefdoms.. sultan himself was among the dead, and the Serbs have celebrated their valor in the battle of Kosovo ever since. Nevertheless, the Turks finally drove them from the field with crippling losses.. John V's reign as senior emperor justified in retrospect the Cantacuzenists who had fought to prevent it.. John let his army and navy decay, and squandered his last asset, Byzantine prestige, on ill-conceived apeals to the papacy, to Hungary, and to Venice p790 Ottoman Sultanate was not only smaller but split between Sulayman in the Balkans and his brothers in Anatolia. Yet the empire was itself divided into Manuel's coastal strips around Constantinople, John's coastlands around Thessalonica, and Theodore's Peloponnesus, each of which was essentially independent of the others. Sulayman held the territory between them and most of their hinterlands in Bulgaria, Thrace and Thessaly. He also kept contact with Anatolia through Callipolis. As the sultan had doubtless expected, Manuel's empire was a facade, with barely the resources to maintain itself p794-5 Among them were the patriarch of Constantinople Joseph II, the archbishop of Nicea Bessarion, representatives of the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, and bishops from Trebizond, Georgia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, and a second Vlach principality, Moldavia. Archbishop Isidore of Kiev, a Greek from Byzantium, came by land from Russia. Traveling by way of Venice, they all arrived in Ferrara the following spring.. continued into 1439 when it moved from Ferrara to Florence.. usually by an agreement to tolerate existing differences.. Although the patriarch Joseph died shortly before the proclamation of union, he left a written statement endorsng it. The emperor and all but two eastern delegates subscribed to it. The pope promised to organise a crusade the next year, and made Besarion of Nicea and Isidore of Kiev cardinals.. opponents found a leader in one of the two delegates who had rejected it, Archbishop Mark of Ephesus. Some other delegates who had subscribed at Florence disowned.. patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem all repudiated p799 The pope sent Cardinal Isidore of Kiev, who brought two hundred soldiers from Naples. But the pope insisted that Constantine proclaim the Union of Florence and reinstate the unionist patriarch Gregory.. reluctant to defy the antinunionists, the emperor felt unable to defy the papacy when western help was so desperately needed. He therefore had the Union of Florence proclaimed p800 As the enemy swarmed into the city, most of the Italians escaped in their ships, but almost all the Byzantine soldiers fought to their death, the emperor Constantine among them.. sultan freed a few others, but executed the highest Byzantine officials.. Preserving Saint Sophia for use as a mosque, he chose a new patriarch, Gennadius Scholarius, a former delegate to the Council of Florence who had become the leading antiunionist.. reinforcements from the West could have done no more that delay the city's fall by a few months pp824-5 Given that many eastern Christians would resist church union on any terms whatever, concluding such a union threatened the authority not only of the emperor but also of the patriarch of Constantinople. With the disappearance of the emperors of Bulgaria and Serbia, the Bulgarian and Serbian patriarchates lapsed, and the patriarchate of Constantinople again gained jurisdiction over the whole former Byzantine world - if he could keep it. Most of the Slavs and Greeks outside the empire, many already ruled by the sultan, were ready to break with Constantinople rather than accept any union with the western church.. allowed their Greek subjects to remain in communion with the patriarch.. limited the number of churches and bishops.. power grew, they saw a chance of extinguishing Christianity altogether in Asia Minor. In the Balkans, where this seemed impossible, the sultans found bishops useful as a means of controlling pp851-3 The only large region with a clear majority of Greek speakers was Greece south of Thessalonica, including the Agean islands, Crete and Cyprus. However, most regions that had been predominantly Greek-speaking at the beginning of the Byzantine period still had Greek-speaking minorities of some size. These included northern Greece, Thrace, most of the Anatolian coast, a few pockets and towns in the Anatolian interior, and even two enclaves in southern Italy.. Since in the First World War the Greeks were hesitantly aligned with the winning side, while Turkey and Bulgaria were losers, in 1920 Greece was able to annex all of Thrace but Constantinople itself, which though nominally Turkish was occupied jointly by the British and French. Woodrow Wilson assigned Trebizond to a newly independent Christian Armenia. The fairest and simplest boundary that could have been drawn between Greece and Turkey would probably have been at the straits, since it would have left about as many Greek speakers in Turkey as Turkish speakers in Greece.. Turkey deported some 1.3 million mostly Greek-speaking Christians to Greece, in exchange for some 300,000 mostly Turkish-speaking Muslims from Greek territory #@# H A Gribb Mohammedanism Cumberledge (Oxford '49 '54) p31 " And whether or not the story be true that in 628 [Muhammad] he sent summonses to the Roman Emperor, the Persian King of Kings and other ruling princes, he was certainly contemplating some action against the Byzantine power in the north before his death in 632." #@# 7Essays on Christian Greece, Demetrios Bikelas, Garnder, Paisley, 1890 [repr Scottish_Review] p14 This Legitimist sentiment, so marked by the New Rome, was certainly not derived from the Old.. in England the scrupulous retention of certain old-world official customs.. ridiculous in the eyes of foreigners, is accompanied by the most perfect excercise of liberty p34 Asiatic.. intense passion of religious hatred.. Latin Christianity seemed about to emigrate bodily into Asia for the purpose of rescuing the Holy Sepulchre.. hereditary nomad instinct.. barbarian hordes which had convulsed and colonized Europe some five or six centuries previously p39 [Luke Notaras] "Better a Turk's turban that a Cardinal's hat".. 1016, a Norman army poured into Italy and seized the provinces still ruled by the Eastern Empire.. captured Corfu and harried the mainland.. Meanwhile the same race conquered England p61 some few of the Emperors married Athenian women, they were themselves by origin all either Thracians, or Armenians, or Isaurians, or Cappadocians; there was not a single Athenian or Spartan among them, or one spring from any other purely Hellenic stock p63 [quotes Finlay] "The authority exercised by the Senate, the powers possessed by the Synods and General Councils of the Church, and the importance often attached by the Emperors to the ratification of their laws by silentia and popular assemblies, mark a change in the Byzantine Empire, in strong contrast with the earlier military Empire of the Romans.. power.. transferred from the army to the laws.. humanity.. visible in the mild treatment of many unsuccessful usurpers and dethroned Emperors.. [coronation oath, Kodinos, de Officiis cap xvii] to abide and perpetually be found a faithful and sincere servant and son of Holy Church, and moreover her defender and avenger.. abstain from bloodshed.. [.].. many of the worst Emperors were deposed by popular indignation p65 [M A Rambaud "Le Monde Byzantine et l'Hippodrome" Rvu Deux Mondes, 15AUG1871 - at the Hippodrome] Byzantine people made and unmade Emperors; there that justice was administered and the guilty punished, and that triumphs were celebrated over barbarians and rebels; there that the masses grazed upon wonders of art and of nature p72-3 [Montrevil says] The Greeks are by their very nature philosophical or speculative. The search for abstract truth is to them more attractive than the pursuit of reforms or the regulation of manners. They are a race eminently literary. They have always been thinkers rather than statesmen. They seized accordingly upon that side of Theology which most appealed to their natural genius. The heresies which arose among them were begotten by the same spirit.. proclivity towards idealism p74 It was the Byzantine Empire also which resisted the very first political pretensions of the Popes p77 Iconoclastic persecution.. mainly responsible for the separation of Central Italy from the other domains of the Empire #@# Byzantine Christianity, Magoulias, Rand McNally 1970 p16 councils of bishops were regarded as a kind of ecclesiastical senate, and the same procedure was applied to them.. But the views of the majority of both clergy and laity could not be defied by even the most authoritarian emperor, and more than once the will of the people overturned the decisions reached by the bishops p98 Charlemagne's.. court poets even referred to Aix-la-Chapelle as "New Rome"! pp103-4 Liutprand of Cremona writes in his Chronicle of Otto's Reign: "Pope John is the enemy of all things.. palace of the Lateran, that once sheltered saints and is now a harlot's brothel.. John a little time ago took women pilgrims by force to his bed, wives, widows and virgins alike.." At this time of the "papal pornocracy" and general malaise in Western monastic life, which reflected the need of reform in the Latin church, the holiness of life in the Greek monasteries was greatly admired p109 Byzantine religion, diplomacy, food, and drink, manneres, ceremonial, etiquette and official splendor, as a matter of policy and personal simplicity, went against the mores and customs evolved in the Germanized West #@# Obolensky [Oxford], ByzCommonwealth, svots.edu 1982 orig Weidenfield 1971 ISBN 0-913836-98-2 pp22-3 No records have survived to tell us what happened to the autochthonous inhabitants, Illyrians and Thracians, who managed to survive this destructive flood. Some of these natives, partly or wholly Romanized, probably retreated before the Slavs into the mountains. In tenth and eleventh century documents two peoples make their first appearance in the Balkan peninsula: the Vlakhs and the Albanians. Their origin has been the subject of much controversy. `Most scholars today regard the Vlakhs as the descendants of the semi-Romanized.. Middle Ages they emerged as nomadic, Romance-speaking shepherds from their mountain retreats, from the Haemus, the Rhodopes and the Pindus, and descended into the lowlands of Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly.. Probably descended from the ancient Illyrians, the Albanians are believed to have retreated before the Slav invaders into the highlands which they still occupy... sudddenly in the fourteenth century, the Albanians began to descend from their mountainous homeland; in a great movement of expansion which has been compared in its scope and impetus to the earlier Slav invasions, they spread eastward and southward. By the following century we find them thick on the ground, in Thessaly, Attica, Boetia, Euboea and Peloponnese, colonizing and farming the countryside, moving as nomadic shepherds across the land, or serving as soldiers in the armies of the local Greek and Frankish lords. It is not surprising that the mountains of the Balkan peninsula in many ages provided refuge for dissident and freedom-loving minorities who have sought to resist the empire builders of the plains. In a Greek folk-song glorifying the military deeds of the klephts, the irregular fighters against the Turks, the proud boast that the mountain is the stronghold of liberty is uttered by Mount Olympus p37 devastations caused by the Avaro-Slav invasions: for two and a half centuries after the death of the Emperor Maurice (602) not a single Balkan city north of Serdica is so much as mentioned in contemporary documents. And when, in the ninth century, the darkness begins to lift from the peninsula the Roman place names have mostly vanished, superseded or transformed by a new Slav nomenclature p80-3 Isidore of Seville could write with scarcely any exaggeration that at the beginning of Heraclius' reign "the Slavs took Greece from the Romans".. Porphyrogenitus, writing soon after 934 and describing the Peloponnese, states that after the great plague of 746-7 "the whole country was Slavicized and became barbarian".. Sklaviniae designated areas occupied by the Slavs, over which Byzantium had lost all effective control but which had acquired no alternative form of central administration.. Chronicle of Monemvasia.. Peloponnesian Slavs were, it states, "subject neither to the emperor of the Romans nor to anyone else" p86 medieval Arab geographers and of King Alfred of England; most modern historians, while recognizing that it contains legendary features, regard Constantine's account [ditto Clavdios Ptolemaios 200AD] of the migrations of the Croats and the Serbs to the Balkans as substantially true. The ethnic origin of the Croats and the Serbs has also provoked some scholarly controversy.. last wave of the Slavonic invasions of the Balkans, or as alien people, possibly of Caucasian origin [ditto Rus/Scyth/Magog], they were absorbed in the course of time by the Slav who had preceded p90-2 "Old Great Bulgaria", undoubtedly built with East Roman support, and extending from the Caucasus to the Don and probably as far as the lower Dnieper.. broke up under the blows of a new invader from Asia, the Khazars, who struck westward from the lower Volga.. Bulgars advanced to the neighborhood of Varna and occupied the Dobrudja.. new home in the Balkans had, during the past eighty years or so, been colonized by the Slavs.. Moesian Slavs were subjugated by Asparuch's horde.. Byzantine writers continued to differentiate between Bulgar and Slav inhabitants of this realm. But the assimilation of the Turkic Bulgars by the far more numerous Slavonic population p102-3 Theophilus restored the university of Constantinople and appointed as its principal teacher the celebrated scholar Leo the Mathematician.. revival of classical studies and the prestige of secular learning, already apparent in Theophilus' reign, gathered strength after the defeat of Iconoclasm p106 Byzantine writers considered that the defeat of the Slavs at Patras marked the end of the Slav occupation of the Peloponnese. This was an over-optimistic view, for the Peloponnesian Slavs revolted again several times; and on the slopes of Mount Taygetus Slav tribes retained until the Turkish conquest of the fifteenth century their language, their ethnic identity, and a tradition of insubordination to the imperial government p112 Orthodox Christianity as a means of achieving cultural assimilation of the Slavs was enhanced, in the Balkan provinces of the empire, by the deliberate use of Greek as a liturgical language. [Ignatiev's Phyletism rears its ugly head again] By contrast with the Slav lands that lay beyond the empire's borders, where, through a combination of linguistic tolerance and tactful diplomacy, the Byzantines encouraged the propogation of Christianity in the Slavonic vernacular [compare to Germans worshipping in Latin], their policy at home was Hellenization through Christianization. In the Slavonic lands now reintegrated into the framework of the Byzantine provincial administration, Greek was not only the idiom of the church but the language of a civil service, of the armed forces and of polite society.. claim made in the 1830s by the German scholar Fallmarayer that the Greeks of today are predominantly of Slav and Albanian stock [compare ancient statues to modern Greeeks; cf Robert Byron, Byz_Achievement] p165 Bogomilsim.. considered primarily as an example - the most strikingly successful in the whole of the Middle Ages - of a spontaneous and popular movement of resistance to the patterns of Byzantine culture which were imposed upon their subjects [Marxist theories debunked JonesJTS59].. fought Byzantine Christianity on its own ground and with its own weapons.. preached a cosmological dualism.. recognized that the Devil is inferior to and ultimately dependent on God [rel: Gnostic, Manichean, Mazdaist, Zoroastrian] pp210-1 influences of the Byzantine and the German empires, met and were fairly evenly balanced.. 1004 Hungarian troops helped the Byzantines to capture Skopjle from Samuel. Despite his recognition of papal authority, Byzantine Christianity held a strong appeal for Stephen.. influence of these monasteries. The veneration of Greek saints was widespread.. Crown of Constantine Monomachus; its fragments, which were found in Hungary during the last century by a peasant ploughing [Hilferding, out to canonise Jan Hus?] p224-5 [568-76 Turk-Byz alliance] artless candour and simple moral values of their nomadic dupes.. sixth century Turks adorned their Central Asian capital with a luxury that surprised even the Byzantine ambassadors; yet they were capable of rejecting what they regarded as the evils of civilization.. sheer distance between Constantinople and Central Asia made the exchange of embassies a strenuous and costly business.. Turkish alliance would have almost certainly involved the Byzantines in a war on two fronts - against the Avars in Europe and the Persians in Asia.. Byzantines missed something of an opportunity.. By the second half of the sixth century, Christianity, admittedly in Nestorian garb, had made many converts in several regions of the Turkish Empire, notably in Khorasan, Afghanisan and the area round Bokhara and Samarkand.. when the Byzantines and the Turks next met each other face to face it was on the eleventh century battle-fields of Asia Minor p231 730-40, when some Jewish beliefs are said to have been adopted by the Khagan Bulan.. conversion of the ruling circles of Khazaria to Judaism took place in gradual stages, and that their final acceptance of Mosaic law was delayed until the second half of the ninth century. In preferring the Jewish religion both to Christianity and to Islam, they were probably moved by the desire to remain politically and culturally independent both of Byzantium and of the Arab Khalifate. The failure to convert the Khazars to Christianity did not substantially affect the friendly relations between Byzantium p234 Patriarch Photius, in a letter to the archbishop of Bosporus, expresed with characteristic regard for the niceties of language [resent? cf Redfield p65] his gratification at the thought that the Black Sea, formerly so inhospitable (axeinos), was now becoming not merely hospitable (euxinos), but also pious (eusebes) p238-41 Swedish Vikings, or Varangians, who used the Volga and later the Dnieper for their trading expeditions.. Russian Primary Chronicle, the earliest native historical source, compiled in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries.. middle of the ninth century a group of Varangians from Scandinavia seized control over the cities of northern Russia, thus conquering a territory, inhabited by Slav and Finnic tribes, which stretched from Lake Ladoga and Beloozero to the middle course of the Western Dvina and to the lower Oka. According to the chronicle they were led by three brothers, of whom the eldest, Ryurik, established himself in Novgorod. The second stage was achieved soon after, when two Viking earls, Askold and Dir, sailed down the Dnieper and captured Kiev from the Khazars. Finally, about 882, Oleg, a relative of Ryurik, incorporated Novgorod and Kiev within a single realm, thus completing the politics unification of the greater fart of the Baltic-Black Sea river route, from the Gulf of Finland to a point on the Dnieper some hundred miles north of the rapids.. people of Gog and Magog who, as everyone knew, had been enclosed in the Caucasian mountains by Alexander the Great. Had not Ezekiel prophesied their invasion from the north? These words of his were much quoted in Constantinople during the summer of 860: "And the word of the Lord came unto me, saying: Son of man, set they face against Gog and the land of Magog, the prince of Rosh [Rus!] (Ez. XXXVIII, 1-2, Septuagint version) [Obolensky views Magog as positive while most westerns see them as end-time evil. Great Alex chased them up Cavcas.] p271 Vlachs [diff spell p22] , whose Romance dialect.. eleventh and twelfth centuries in much the same guise as today: transhumant shepherds, moving their flocks od sheep and goats between their winter settlements in th eplain of Thessaly and their summer pastures in the Pindus and Grammos [Grammos is the highest peak of the Pindus Alps] Mountains. Their seasonable migrations are later attested in other parts of the Balkan peninsula. The Byzantines knew them mostly for their incurable insubordination: the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela [cit tr N W Adler, London 1907, p11], who visited Greece in the second half of the twelfth century, describes the Vlachs of Thessaly as follows: "They are as swift as hinds, and they sweep down from the mountains to despoil and ravage the land of Greece. No man can go up and do battle against them, and no king can rule over them... They are altogether lawless" p274 The Byzantization of the Slavs in Greece was now virtually complete. Only in the remoter areas of the Southern Peloponnese did Slav tribes retain their language and their sence of ethnic distinction until the end of the Middle Ages: these recalcitrants were the Melingoi, on the slopes of the Taygetus Mountains, and the Ezeritai, who lived on the northern and eastern coast of the Gulf of Laconia, from Gytheion to Vatika Bay near Cape Malea. Both tribes revolted several times against Byzantine rule, and in the second half of the thirteenth sentury were granted local autonomy and the right of bearing arms. But this was an exception [vs Biddle on Maniates] p281-2 renounced their independence to become the tenants or serfs of some territorial magnate no doubt regarded their new status, which at least preserved them from starvation.. pronoiarioi must have often appeared as alien exploiters.. anti-Byzantine sentiments were exploited [vs JonesJTS59] by the dualist heretics in Bulgaria, the Bogomils and the [Cathar-] Paulicians.. Bogomils [Bosnian mulsims claim decent from them] preached a doctrine of civil disobedience.. social anarchism.. revolt, allied with the Pecheneg and Cuman p298-9 Andrew Bogolyubsky, the powerful prince of Vladimir in North-East Russia (1157-74), whose autocratic behaviour resembles more closely the policy of the future Muscovite rulers than that of his Kievan predecessors.. Cumans (whom the Russians called the Polovtsy), became during the next few years masters of the steppe.. even greater menace to Kievan Russia than the Pechenegs.. virtual severance of the lower Dnieper route by the Cumans imperilled Kiev's links with Byzantium.. retreat step by step from the fringes of the steppe towards the remoter forest areas. By the 1140s Kiev had begun to yield its political and economic dominance in Russia p301 Manuel I's diplomacy had consolidated Byzantium's political influence over the more important Russian principalities.. obligation assumed by Russian princes to supply troops for the Byzantine armies p302 [Nicetas Choniates ca 1200] acknowledged that the salvation of Byzantium was due on this occasion to "the most Christian nation of the Russians" whose "God-mustered phalanx" relieved the [Cuman] pressure on the imperial capital.. demonstrated their loyalty to the empire only a few years after the Bulgarians and the Serbs had rebelled against it p311 capture of Kiev in 1240, made the country a political dependency of the Tatar khans of the Golden Horde. The next 240 years the princes of Central and Northern Russia paid tribute to and ruled by the grace of the sovereign of a Turko-Mongol empire whose capital was on the lower Volga.. And yet, however much the political links between the different parts of the commonwealth were loosened in the thirteenth century, neither the Fourth Crusade nor the Mongol conquest of Russia was able to break them completely p312 Nor were the Serbs slow to realize that the decline of Byzantine power required a rapprochement with the West.. divorced his Byzantine bride, the emperor's daughter; he later married the grandaughter of Enrico Dandolo, the formidable Doge of Venice who, more than any other leader of the Fourth Crusade, was responsible for the sack of Constantinople.. Daniel, prince of Galicia and Volynia [Yuschenko territory, "Polish" Ukraine], offered to acknowldege papal supremacy. In 1253 he was crowned king with a crown sent by Innocent IV. The failure of the [promised anti-Tatar] crusade to materialize, and the reimposition of Tatar control over Daniel's lands ended this shortlived attempt to bring Western Russia into the orbit of Latin p313 The Byzantine patriarchate, the traditional guardian of Orthodoxy, had been expelled from Constantinople; but it had found refuge in Nicaea, whose rulers regarded themselves as the lawful successors of the emperors of Byzantium.. Nicean period (1204-61) that these three [Bg Sb Ru] nations obtained ecclesiatical priveleges which in different degrees increased the autonomy of their respective churches.. extorted through diplomatic pressure from a weakened empire in exile p327 By the second half of the eleventh century, in place of the free peasant-soldier commune [puhlease, what next, a Khazar kibutz?], two types of land holding had become prevalent in the Byzantine Empire: on the one hand the large hereditary estate of the civil or military magnate and, on the other, crown property handed out to eminent Byzantines or foreigners to administer, usually in return for military service, free of state taxation. The latter system was called pronoia (literally, "care").. differed from a land grant of the first type in that it was held for a limited time, usually until the recipient's death, and was, until the second half of the thirteenth century, inalienable. From the time of Michael VII, however, pronoiarioi were allowed to bequeath p339 1380, when the Russian troops commanded by Dimitri, prince of Moscow, defeated a large Tatar army at Kulikovo p340 should he reside in the historic see of Kiev, which from about 1362 was on Lithuanian territory, or in Moscow?.. In the fourteenth century the Lithuanian ruling classes were still predominantly pagan; but they had the tiresome habit of trying to blackmail the Byzantines by the threat of going over to the Roman Church p341 dashed in 1386, when Olgerd's son Jagiello was baptized into the Roman Church and married the queen of Poland. Through this marriage Lithuania was united with the Polish Kingdom, although it included a large Russian Orthodox population within its borders, moved outside the orbit of Byzantium p358 Historians are understandably fond of citing [Cremonan] Liutprand's famous description of an imperial audience in the palace in 949: the immense throne which by some hidden mechanism would suddenly levitate to the ceiling, with the emperor in it; the gilded tree with its singing birds of bronze, the mechanical lions which roared and beat the ground with their tails. It may well be that this display of Byzantine technological skill overawed the envoys of the less sophistcated nations of Eastern Europe. p365 Boris' conversion was followed by a repression of the Old Bulgar aristocracy and an attempt to entrust public offices to Slavs, the former subject-race, who had long been exposed to the influences of Byzantine Christianity. [Gosh, thought all in Bogomil rebellion?] Similarly in Hungary the Slavs seem to have played an important role in transformation of the Finno-Ugrian Magyars from nomads into farmers and in the religious conversion p390 'prayer of the heart" had gradually become linked with the frequent repetition of the "Jesus prayer" ("Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy upon me") and with certain bodily excercises (such as regulation of breathing [inhale Lord, exhale mercy]), designed to aid spiritual concentration. Gregory of Sinai, one of the foremost teachers of Hesychasm, was certainly no innovator.. goes back to the traditions of fifth century Christian ascetism, if not earlier p468-72 restatement of Philotheus' theory of "Moscow the Third Rome" in the Act instituting the patriarchate of Moscow in 1589.. Neither Ivan III nor any of his successors ever claimed that the marriage with Zoe gave thema right to this heritage.. 1582 Ivan IV declared to the papal envoy, Antonio Possevino: "we do not want the realm of the whole universe".. "Moscow the Second Kiev", not "Moscow the Third Rome" was the hallmark of their foreign policy.. Philotheus' views were strongly tinged with eschatological elements: the Third Rome was for him but a prelude - possible a brief one - to "the kingdom of which there shall be no end".. [Nikon vsOldBlvrs] "I am a Russian.. but my faith and religion are Greek".. [Although programmed panSlav conditioning eventually pops up, author's scholarly soul resumes control] p473-5 Early sultans strove to appear in the eyes of their Christian subjects as the heirs of East Rome [Senate/Synkletos as Divan until 1923 with Greek members].. Greek merchant aristocracy of Constantinople.. Phanariots.. growing influence upon the Church's organs of administration. Some of them, like the Cantacuzeni, claimed descent from Byzantine imperail families.. Rumanian historian [Iorga, 1935] has descr